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The objectives were to understand the influence of food texture on appetite control, including appetite ratings, such as hunger, fullness, desire to eat, thirst, prospective food consumption how much food participants thought they could eatfood intake, and gut peptides, such as ghrelin, GLP-1, PYY and CCK.
We hypothesize that higher textural characteristics solid form, higher viscosity, higher lubricity, higher degree of heterogeneity, etc.
would lead to greater suppression of appetite and reduced food intake. liquid, solid, semi-solid throughout the entire manuscript. solid versus liquid or versus semi-solid. The techniques used often included blending a solid food resulting in a pureed texture or other kitchen-based food processing techniques, such as boiling, chopping etc.
Initially, for instrumental measurements of those texture generated, Santangelo et al. Later, the focus on textural intervention shifted to specifically altering the viscosity of food by using different dietary fibres polysaccharides to thicken, such as alginate 20locust bean gum 21or guar-gum 22 and terms used to describe those textures ranged from 'low viscosity' to 'high viscosity'.
At the beginning ofchange in viscosity was measured for the first time for use in a satiety trial by Mattes and Rothacker 23 using a spindle. The solid food texture was measured using puncture stress 24 to determine firmness. With the field evolving, the texture of food manipulations was more precisely measured in its viscosity and firmness using sophisticated rheological instruments.
A shift in focus occurred a decade later with more attention being given to the structural complexity of food, and to satiety studies using gel-based model foods with precise control over the texture; such gels avoid any emotional association with real food.
For instance, Tang et al. hydrocolloid based gels with various inclusions to create different levels of textural complexity or in other words higher degree of heterogeneity and assess the relationships between the gels and satiety. Besides classical rheological measurements, McCrickerd et al.
food and simulated saliva mixturerespectively, using a Mini Traction Machine tribometer. Such differentiation in the lubricity of hydrogels was used for the first time by Krop et al.
Key milestones in research timeline of food textural manipulations for achieving satiety and the quantitative techniques used to measure food texture. This review was registered on the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews PROSPERO using the Registration Number: CRD Interventions included any study that manipulated the food texture externally i.
ranging from varying food forms to its complexity see Table 1. Only those studies with a fixed-portion preload design i. Any study that involved manipulation of the intrinsic behaviours such as chewing, eating rate have been excluded Also, studies that failed to make the link between food texture and appetite control or food intake or gut peptides, were excluded, for instance studies which assessed expected satiety Studies that measured food intake following an ad libitum experimental intervention were excluded too 284243 Likewise, studies that included any cognitive manipulation 45a free-living intervention or partial laboratory intervention designs 46 were excluded to reduce heterogenity in study design.
A detailed information on the search terms is given in Supplementary Table S1. Articles were assessed for eligibility for inclusion in a meta-analysis. All outcomes were assessed for suitability for pooled analysis. A minimum of 3 studies were needed for each meta-analysis. Studies with no reported measure of variation such as standard deviation or standard error were excluded.
If data were insufficient to allow inclusion in the meta-analysis, authors were contacted for retrieving the information Appetite is usually measured on a mm visual analogue scale VAS Where 9, 10 or 13 point scales were used to measure appetite ratings, these scales were converted into a point scale, so that the appetite ratings were comparable Food intake is measured in either weight g or energy kcal or kJ.
The given values were converted to kcal to allow comparison across the studies. For appetite ratings, available data from the medium follow up period 60 min after preload consumption were extracted for synthesis in meta-analyses.
Where meta-analysis was possible, mean differences were calculated to account for variable outcome measures for each comparison, using the generic inverse variance method, in a random-effect meta-analysis model Stata15 software was used for all analysis. Funnel plots were presented to assess small study publication bias.
Where such data pooling was not possible, findings were narratively synthesised and reported according to the outcomes Note, in the Sect. The literature search yielded 29 studies that met the inclusion criteria of this systematic review.
how much food participants thought they could eat. Of these, 19 measured subsequent food intake and eight measured gut peptide responses.
The study selection was conducted in several phases following the checklist and flowchart of the PRISMA Preferred Reporting for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines 49 as shown in Fig. Initially, a total number of 8, articles were identified using literature search in the afore-mentioned six electronic databases.
After removing the duplicates 2,the remaining 5, titles were screened by the first author ES based on their relevance to this review. Firstly, 5, studies were excluded based on the PICOS Population, Intervention, Comparison, Outcome, and Setting criteria i. Additionally, articles not addressing the topic of interest were excluded 5, The articles were taken to the next phase where abstracts were screened by ES and AS, resulting in the exclusion of an additional articles 67 articles had no relevance to the topic s of systematic review, 56 had non-relevant outcome measures, 23 were new or validation of existing protocols, 11 were non-human studies with additional 7 being non-eligible population and 9 were reviews without any original data.
A total of full-text articles, including 9 articles that have been identified through supplementary approaches e. manual searches of reference list of pre-screened articles were equally divided and screened independently by ES, AS and CG.
After a mutual agreement, articles with inappropriate interventions and designs e. To sum it up, a total of 29 articles were included for qualitative synthesis.
Many included studies adopted a within-subject design, with the exception of three which used a between-subject design 2950 A total of participants were included in the qualitative synthesis with age ranging from 18 to 50 years mean age Ideally, studies should have an equal ratio of men and women, however, in five studies more women were included than men 17295253 On the other hand, a number of studies included more men than women 2655 Moreover, in twelve studies men only were included 1921222425515758596061 No study included only females and two studies did not mention gender ratio 20 All studies selected participants within a healthy BMI range.
Mourao et al. However, for this systematic review, the results of lean subjects only were included. In most studies, participants with dietary restrictions or dramatic weight change were specifically excluded as well as those who reported high levels of dietary restraint 11 out of 29 as assessed by either the Dutch Eating Behaviour Questionnaire DEBQ or the Three Factor Eating Questionnaire were excluded.
Only one study was double-blinded 55 and 14 studies used cover stories to distract participants from the real purpose of the study. In only twelve of the studies, a power calculation was used to determine the number of participants needed to find a significance difference 2150525455565758596465 In 16 studies 17182550525355565758616263646566manipulations of food forms that were included consisted of liquid versus solid or liquid versus semi-solid or semi-solid versus solid, and included chunky and pureed food.
Food consisted mainly of vegetables, fruit, meat and beverage fruit juices and texture was manipulated by blending the food.
: Satiety enhancing ingredients| Related Articles | My podcast changed me Can 'biological race' explain disparities in health? Why Parkinson's research is zooming in on the gut Tools General Health Drugs A-Z Health Hubs Health Tools Find a Doctor BMI Calculators and Charts Blood Pressure Chart: Ranges and Guide Breast Cancer: Self-Examination Guide Sleep Calculator Quizzes RA Myths vs Facts Type 2 Diabetes: Managing Blood Sugar Ankylosing Spondylitis Pain: Fact or Fiction Connect About Medical News Today Who We Are Our Editorial Process Content Integrity Conscious Language Newsletters Sign Up Follow Us. Medical News Today. Health Conditions Health Products Discover Tools Connect. What are the most filling foods? Medically reviewed by Katherine Marengo LDN, R. Boiled or baked potato Pulses High-fiber foods Low-fat dairy products Eggs Nuts Lean meat and fish Summary Some foods can maintain the feeling of fullness for longer than others. Boiled or baked potato. Share on Pinterest Potatoes are a dense food that are rich in healthful nutrients. High-fiber foods. Low-fat dairy products. Share on Pinterest Nuts are effective at increasing satiety. Lean meat and fish. How we reviewed this article: Sources. Medical News Today has strict sourcing guidelines and draws only from peer-reviewed studies, academic research institutions, and medical journals and associations. We avoid using tertiary references. We link primary sources — including studies, scientific references, and statistics — within each article and also list them in the resources section at the bottom of our articles. You can learn more about how we ensure our content is accurate and current by reading our editorial policy. Share this article. Latest news Ovarian tissue freezing may help delay, and even prevent menopause. RSV vaccine errors in babies, pregnant people: Should you be worried? Scientists discover biological mechanism of hearing loss caused by loud noise — and find a way to prevent it. How gastric bypass surgery can help with type 2 diabetes remission. Atlantic diet may help prevent metabolic syndrome. Related Coverage. How many is too many eggs? Medically reviewed by Kim Chin, RD. Ten natural ways to suppress appetite An appetite suppressant is a particular food, supplement, or lifestyle choice that reduces feelings of hunger. In , an eight-week, double-blind, randomized placebo-controlled clinical trial 5 conducted in India found that Slimaluma supplementation in 50 overweight adult subjects resulted in significant results for waist circumference and hunger level when combined with a healthy diet and exercise. SolaThin is a branded vegetarian protein made solely from potatoes and supplied by Bioriginal Irvine, CA. References: 1. Kuriyan R et al. Article written by Cindy Reed, and published in Nutritional Outlook website, July 13, Previous Next. During a day study at Swinburne University in Australia, 60 participants were given dosages of either mg or mg of SolaThin, or a placebo. Compared to the placebo, SolaThin subjects experienced an increase in pounds of fat lost after 21 days; those taking mg of SolaThin demonstrated, on average, about 2 pounds of fat loss during the study. OmniLean is a Salacia extract from OmniActive Health Technologies Morristown, NJ designed to support multiple facets of metabolic health, including healthy weight, reducing hunger, and helping ease the urge to snack. It may also reduce high blood glucose levels resulting from consuming a high-carb meal. The company says that in an unpublished randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial, researchers found that OmniLean had positive effects on postprandial rise in blood glucose and insulin, as well as a positive impact on additional markers of satiety GLP-1 and amylin. In terms of viscosity, it has been found that higher viscous food can also lead to a reduced subsequent energy intake. Authors reported that the beverage with high-viscosity led to a lower energy intake compared to the low-viscous beverage when energy consumption during the meal consumed ad libitum and during the rest of the test day was combined. Although authors attribute their findings to a slower gastric emptying rate, they did not measure it directly, nor was the effect of viscosity on mouth feel or oral residence time affecting early stages of satiety cascade investigated. Even with a limited number of studies, textural complexity has been demonstrated to have a clear impact on subsequent food intake. For instance, in the studies of Tang et al. Interestingly, Krop et al. These authors related their findings to hydrating and mouth-coating effects after ingesting the high lubricating carrageenan-alginate hydrogels that in turn led to a lower snack intake. Moreover, they demonstrated that it was not the intrinsic chewing properties of hydrogels but the externally manipulated lubricity of those gel boli i. gel and simulated saliva mixture that influenced the snack intake. All these reports suggest that there is a growing interest in assessing food texture from a textural complexity perspective. This strategy needs attention in future satiety trials as well as longer-term repeated exposure studies. The energy density of the preload across the studies varied from zero kcal 29 or a modest energy density 40 kcal 26 , 27 up to a higher value of — — kcal 18 , 19 see the Supplementary Table S2. It is noteworthy that the lower the energy density of the preload, the shorter the time interval between the intervention preload and the next meal ad libitum meal. Some of these studies showed an effect of texture on appetite ratings and food intake, with food higher in heterogeneity leading to a suppression of appetite and reduction in subsequent food intake 26 , Also, gels with no calories but high in their lubrication properties showed a reduction in snack intake Contrary to those textures with zero or modest levels of calories, those textures high in calories tended to have a larger time gap between the intervention preload and the next meal. An interesting pattern observed across these studies employing high calorie-dense studies, is that an effect of texture on appetite ratings was found but no effect on food intake 22 , 61 , Therefore, in addition to the high energy density of the preload, it appears that time allowed between the preload and the next meal is an important methodological parameter. A total of 23 articles were included in the meta-analysis. Two articles were excluded as data on a number of outcomes were missing 19 , Meta-analysis on structural complexity 26 , 27 , lubrication 29 , aeration 54 and gut peptides could not be performed due to the limited number of studies that addressed this issue, and therefore a further four articles were excluded. Finally, meta-analysis was performed on the effect of form and viscosity of food on three outcomes: hunger, fullness and food intake. Data from 22 within-subjects and 1 between-subjects trials reporting comparable outcome measures were synthesised in the meta-analyses. These articles were expanded into 35 groups as some studies provided more than one comparison group. Meta-analyses presenting combined estimates and levels of heterogeneity were carried out on studies investigating form total of 20 subgroups, participants and viscosity total of 15 subgroups, participants for the three outcomes hunger, fullness and food intake see data included in the meta-analysis in Supplementary Tables S4 a—c. Meta-analysis of effect of food texture on hunger ratings. The diamond indicates the overall estimated effect. ID represents the identification. There was no difference in fullness between groups for either of the two subgroups see Fig. Meta-analysis of effect of food texture on fullness ratings. A meta-analysis of participants from 11 subgroups based on viscosity revealed an overall significant increase in fullness for higher viscosity food of 5. Meta-analysis on effect of food texture on food intake. Funnel plots see Supplementary Figure S1 a—c reveal that there was some evidence of asymmetry and therefore publication bias may be present, particularly for the meta-analyses for hunger. In this comprehensive systematic review and meta-analysis, we investigated the effects of food texture on appetite, gut peptides and food intake. The hypothesis tested was that food with higher textural characteristics solid form, higher viscosity, higher lubricity, higher degree of heterogeneity, etc. would lead to a greater suppression of appetite and reduced food intake. Likewise, the quantitative analysis meta-analysis clearly indicated a significant decrease in hunger with solid food compared to liquid food. Also, a significant increase was noted in fullness with high viscous food compared to low viscous food. However, no effect of food form on fullness was observed. Food form showed a borderline significant decrease in food intake with solid food having the main effect. The main explanation for the varying outcomes could be the methodology applied across the studies which was supported by a moderate to a high heterogeneity of studies in the meta-analysis. Within the preload study designs that were included in the current article, attention should be paid to the following factors that were shown to play an important role in satiety and satiation research: macronutrient composition of the preload, time lapse between preload and test meal, and test meal composition Considerable data supports the idea that the macronutrient composition, energy density, physical structure and sensory qualities of food plays an important role in satiety and satiation. For instance, it has been demonstrated that eating a high-protein and high-carbohydrate preload can lead to a decrease in hunger ratings and reduced food intake in comparison with eating high-fat preload As such, it is worth noting that interventions across the studies included in this systematic review and meta-analysis differed hugely in terms of macronutrient composition. For example, in some studies the preload food was higher in fat and carbohydrate 25 , 64 compared to protein which may be a reason for finding no effect on appetite and food intake. In contrast, where the preload was high in protein 57 , a significant suppression of appetite ratings was observed. Moreover, it is important to highlight that a recent development in the food science community is the ability to create products such as hydrogel-based that do not contain any calories. As these gels are novel products, they are also free from any prior learning or expected postprandial satisfaction that could influence participants. These hydrogels have been proven to have an impact on satiety 26 and satiation 29 suggesting there is an effect of food texture alone, independent of calories and macronutrients composition. An important factor that may also explain variation in outcomes, may be the timing between preload and test meal. It has been argued that the longer the time interval between preload and test meal the lower the effect of preload manipulation Accordingly, the range of intervals between preload and test meal differed substantially across the studies included in this systematic review: from 10 to min. Studies with a shorter time interval 10—15 min between preload and ad libitum food intake showed an effect of food texture on subsequent food intake 26 , 27 , In contrast, those studies with a longer time interval, such as Camps et al. As such, it can be deduced that the effects of texture might be more prominent in studies tracking changes in appetite and food intake over a shorter period following the intervention. In addition, the energy density of the preload is a key factor that should not be discounted when designing satiety trials on food texture. For instance, the lower the energy density of the preload, the shorter the interval between the intervention and next meal should be in order to detect an effect of food texture on satiation as observed by Tang et al. Therefore, the different time intervals between preload and ad libitum test meal, and a difference in energy densities of the preload can lead to a modification of outcomes, which might confound the effect of texture itself. The test meals in the studies were served either as a buffet-style participants could choose from a large variety of foods or as a single course food choice was controlled. It has been noticed that in studies where the test meal was served in a buffet style 25 , 53 , 66 , there was no effect on subsequent food intake. Choosing from a variety of foods can delay satiation, stimulate more interest in different foods offered and encourage increased food intake 75 leading to the same level of intake on both conditions e. solid and liquid conditions. In contrast, in studies that served test meal as a single course 26 , 27 , 29 , 67 , the effect of texture on subsequent food intake has been shown as more prominent. Therefore, providing a single course meal in satiety studies may have scientific merit although it might be far from real-life setting. It was also noticeable that some studies with a larger sample size 17 , 20 , 60 showed less effect of food texture on hunger and fullness in our meta-analysis. Although, it is not possible to confirm the reasons why this is the case we can only speculate it could be due to considerable heterogeneity across the studies. For instance, one of the reasons could be the selection criteria of the participants. Even though, we saw no substantial differences from the information reported in individual studies there may be other important but unreported factors contributing to this heterogeneity. Furthermore, studies with larger sample sizes often have larger variation in the selected participant pool than in smaller studies 76 which could potentially reduce the precision of the pooled effects of food texture on appetite ratings but at the same time may produce results that are more generalizable to other settings. Although the meta-analysis showed a clear but modest effect of texture on hunger, fullness and food intake, the exact mechanism behind such effects remains elusive. Extrinsically-introduced food textural manipulations such as those covered in this meta-analysis might have triggered alterations in oral processing behaviour, eating rate or other psychological and physiological processing in the body. However, at this stage, to point out one single mechanism underlying the effect of texture on satiety and satiation would be premature and could be misleading. A limited number of studies have also included physiological measurements such as gut peptides with the hypothesis that textural manipulation can trigger hormonal release influencing later parts of the Satiety Cascade 9 , However, with only eight studies that measured gut peptides, of which five failed to show any effect of texture, it is hard to support one mechanism over another. Employing food textural manipulations such as increasing viscosity, lubricating properties and the degree of heterogeneity appear to be able to trigger effects on satiation and satiety. However, information about the physiological mechanism underlying these effects have not been revealed by an examination of the current literature. Unfortunately, many studies in this area were of poor-quality experimental design with no or limited control conditions, a lack of the concealment of the study purpose to participants and a failure to register the protocol before starting the study; thus, raising questions about the transparency and reporting of the study results. Future research should apply a framework to standardize procedures such as suggested by Blundell et al. It is, therefore, crucial to carry out more studies involving these types of well-characterized model foods and see how they may affect satiety and food intake. To date, only one study 29 has looked at the lubricating capacity of food using hydrogels with no calories which clearly showed the effect of texture alone; eliminating the influence of energy content. As such, a clear gap in knowledge of the influence of food with higher textural characteristics, such as lubrication, aeration, mechanical contrast, and variability in measures of appetite, gut peptide and food intake is identified through this systematic review and meta-analysis. There are limited number of studies that have assessed gut peptides ghrelin, GLP-1, PPY, and CCK in relation to food texture to date. Apart from the measurement of gut peptides, no study has used saliva biomarkers, such as α-amylase and salivary PYY to show the relationship between these biomarkers and subjective appetite ratings. Therefore, it would be of great value to assess appetite through both objective and subjective measurements to examine possible correlations between the two. Besides these aspects, there are other cofactors that are linked to food texture and hard to control, affecting further its effect on satiety and satiation. To name, pleasantness, palatability, acceptability, taste and flavour are some of the cofactors that should be taken into account when designing future satiety studies. In addition, effects of interactions between these factors such as taste and texture, texture and eating rate etc. on satiety can be important experiments that need future attention. For instance, the higher viscous food should have at least 10— factor higher viscosity than the control at orally relevant shear rate i. Therefore, objectively characterizing the preloads in the study by both instrumental and sensory terms is important to have a significant effect of texture on satiety. Furthermore, having a control condition, such as water or placebo condition, will make sure that the effects seen are due to the intervention preload and not to some other factors. Also, time to the next meal is crucial. Studies with a low energy density intervention should reduce the time between intervention and the next meal. Also, double-blind study designs should be considered to reduce the biases. Finally, intervention studies with repeated exposure to novel food with higher textural characteristics and less energy density are needed to clearly understand their physiological and psychological consequences, which will eventually help to create the next-generation of satiety- and satiation-enhancing foods. Rexrode, K. et al. Abdominal adiposity and coronary heart disease in women. Article CAS Google Scholar. McMillan, D. ABC of obesity: obesity and cancer. BE1 Article Google Scholar. Steppan, C. The hormone resistin links obesity to diabetes. Nature , — Article ADS CAS PubMed Google Scholar. Collaboration, N. Trends in adult body-mass index in countries from to a pooled analysis of population-based measurement studies with 19·2 million participants. The Lancet , — Obesity and overweight. Ionut, V. Gastrointestinal hormones and bariatric surgery-induced weight loss. Obesity 21 , — Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar. Chambers, L. Optimising foods for satiety. Trends Food Sci. Garrow, J. Energy Balance and Obesity in Man North-Holland Publishing Company, Amsterdam, Google Scholar. Blundell, J. Making claims: functional foods for managing appetite and weight. Article PubMed Google Scholar. in Food Acceptance and Nutrition eds Colms, J. in Assessment Methods for Eating Behaviour and Weight-Related Problems: Measures, Theory and Research. Kojima, M. Ghrelin: structure and function. Cummings, D. Gastrointestinal regulation of food intake. Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar. Murphy, K. Gut hormones and the regulation of energy homeostasis. Nature , — Kissileff, H. Cholecystokinin and stomach distension combine to reduce food intake in humans. Smith, G. Relationships between brain-gut peptides and neurons in the control of food intake. in The Neural Basis of Feeding and Reward — Mattes, R. Soup and satiety. Tournier, A. Effect of the physical state of a food on subsequent intake in human subjects. Appetite 16 , 17— Santangelo, A. Physical state of meal affects gastric emptying, cholecystokinin release and satiety. Solah, V. Differences in satiety effects of alginate- and whey protein-based foods. Appetite 54 , — Camps, G. Empty calories and phantom fullness: a randomized trial studying the relative effects of energy density and viscosity on gastric emptying determined by MRI and satiety. Zhu, Y. The impact of food viscosity on eating rate, subjective appetite, glycemic response and gastric emptying rate. PLoS ONE 8 , e Article ADS CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar. Beverage viscosity is inversely related to postprandial hunger in humans. Juvonen, K. Structure modification of a milk protein-based model food affects postprandial intestinal peptide release and fullness in healthy young men. Labouré, H. Behavioral, plasma, and calorimetric changes related to food texture modification in men. Tang, J. The effect of textural complexity of solid foods on satiation. Larsen, D. Increased textural complexity in food enhances satiation. Appetite , — McCrickerd, K. Does modifying the thick texture and creamy flavour of a drink change portion size selection and intake?. Appetite 73 , — Krop, E. The influence of oral lubrication on food intake: a proof-of-concept study. Food Qual. Miquel-Kergoat, S. Effects of chewing on appetite, food intake and gut hormones: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Robinson, E. A systematic review and meta-analysis examining the effect of eating rate on energy intake and hunger. Influence of oral processing on appetite and food intake: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Almiron-Roig, E. Factors that determine energy compensation: a systematic review of preload studies. Dhillon, J. Effects of food form on appetite and energy balance. Campbell, C. Designing foods for satiety: the roles of food structure and oral processing in satiation and satiety. Food Struct. de Wijk, R. The effects of food viscosity on bite size, bite effort and food intake. Semisolid meal enriched in oat bran decreases plasma glucose and insulin levels, but does not change gastrointestinal peptide responses or short-term appetite in healthy subjects. Kehlet, U. Meat Sci. Gadah, N. No difference in compensation for sugar in a drink versus sugar in semi-solid and solid foods. Hogenkamp, P. Intake during repeated exposure to low-and high-energy-dense yogurts by different means of consumption. The impact of food and beverage characteristics on expectations of satiation, satiety and thirst. |
| Foods that Increase Fullness - Behavioral Nutrition | Melnikov, Hydration for gut health. Ingredientts Struct. Sqtiety Food Acceptance Satiety enhancing ingredients Nutrition eds Enhancinh, J. Satiety enhancing ingredients meta-analysis of participants from 11 subgroups based on viscosity revealed an overall significant increase in fullness for higher viscosity food of 5. However, the term textural complexity is rather poorly defined in the literature. All outcomes were assessed for suitability for pooled analysis. |
| Plant-Based Ingredients to Improve Satiety – UBC Okanagan Food Services | Appetite ; 44 1 : Open access journals are very helpful for students, researchers and the general public including people from institutions which do not have library or cannot afford to subscribe scientific journals. The plasma levels of glucose and insulin are the more considered biomarkers used as valuable information to connect the theory with the practical actions in the area of functional foods. solid versus liquid or versus semi-solid. Previous Next. |
Satiety enhancing ingredients -
manual searches of reference list of pre-screened articles were equally divided and screened independently by ES, AS and CG. After a mutual agreement, articles with inappropriate interventions and designs e.
To sum it up, a total of 29 articles were included for qualitative synthesis. Many included studies adopted a within-subject design, with the exception of three which used a between-subject design 29 , 50 , A total of participants were included in the qualitative synthesis with age ranging from 18 to 50 years mean age Ideally, studies should have an equal ratio of men and women, however, in five studies more women were included than men 17 , 29 , 52 , 53 , On the other hand, a number of studies included more men than women 26 , 55 , Moreover, in twelve studies men only were included 19 , 21 , 22 , 24 , 25 , 51 , 57 , 58 , 59 , 60 , 61 , No study included only females and two studies did not mention gender ratio 20 , All studies selected participants within a healthy BMI range.
Mourao et al. However, for this systematic review, the results of lean subjects only were included. In most studies, participants with dietary restrictions or dramatic weight change were specifically excluded as well as those who reported high levels of dietary restraint 11 out of 29 as assessed by either the Dutch Eating Behaviour Questionnaire DEBQ or the Three Factor Eating Questionnaire were excluded.
Only one study was double-blinded 55 and 14 studies used cover stories to distract participants from the real purpose of the study. In only twelve of the studies, a power calculation was used to determine the number of participants needed to find a significance difference 21 , 50 , 52 , 54 , 55 , 56 , 57 , 58 , 59 , 64 , 65 , In 16 studies 17 , 18 , 25 , 50 , 52 , 53 , 55 , 56 , 57 , 58 , 61 , 62 , 63 , 64 , 65 , 66 , manipulations of food forms that were included consisted of liquid versus solid or liquid versus semi-solid or semi-solid versus solid, and included chunky and pureed food.
Food consisted mainly of vegetables, fruit, meat and beverage fruit juices and texture was manipulated by blending the food. Two studies 26 , 27 examined the effect of structural complexity, such as low complexity versus high complexity, and the intervention consisted of model foods i.
hydrogels enclosing various layers and particulate inclusions such as poppy and sunflower seeds. One study 19 looked at the homogenization of food, one at the aeration of food incorporating N 2 O into a liquid drink 54 and one study assessed the effect of gels with different lubricity low vs medium vs high lubricity using κ -carrageenan and alginate to manipulate the texture Nineteen studies measured food texture instrumentally, of which 14 assessed viscosity 17 , 20 , 21 , 22 , 24 , 29 , 55 , 56 , 59 , 60 , 61 , 62 , 64 , 67 , two measured lubricity indirectly by measuring friction coefficients 29 , 60 , one measured foam volume as a function of time 54 and one used aperture sieving Eleven studies assessed food texture using sensory evaluation, of which three studies have used a trained panel 11, 29, 33 panellists 20 , 29 , 52 , four studies untrained 20, 20, 24, 32 panellists 26 , 27 , 51 , 62 , and in two studies it is unclear whether it was a trained or untrained panel 20 panellists 21 , Two studies did not publish or did not show the data 25 , The sensory evaluation was carried out by using Quantitative Descriptive Analysis QDA 27 , 29 , modified Texture Profile TP and Temporal Dominance of Sensations TDS Additional information with regards to objective textural manipulation that is characterized by instrumental and sensorial techniques and information on weight and energy density of the intervention, and time to next meal can be found in Supplementary Table S2.
All studies used mm visual analogue scale VAS or categorical rating scales to assess appetite ratings. Two studies 19 , 67 referred only generally to satiety instead of specifying exactly which appetite ratings were being measured. The gut peptides were mainly assayed using commercial plate-based immunoassay test kits.
One study 55 reported on all three criteria random sequence generation, allocation concealment and blinding of participants and personnel , and therefore was included in the low risk-of-bias category.
Twenty-five studies reported on one or two criteria and were considered as in the medium risk-of-bias category. And three trials 17 , 18 , 25 did not report clearly on the assessment criteria, therefore were judged within the high risk-of-bias category.
The textural manipulation within these studies ranged from the manipulation of solid-like characteristics to viscosity and to the design of well-characterized model gels with structural complexity Table 2.
Flood-Obbagy and Rolls 65 found that whole apples led to decreased hunger ratings and increased fullness when compared with their liquid counterparts i. apple sauce and juice. These authors argued that the effect of food on satiety was due to the structural form of food itself and the larger volume in case of whole fruit as compared to the liquid versions, even when matched for energy content and weight.
Interestingly, these findings were not associated with the amount of fibre as the fibre content was similar across liquid and solid conditions. Similar findings by Hogenkamp et al. They found that the semi-solid product comparable with firm pudding suppressed appetite greater than the liquid product comparable with very thin custard.
The authors related their findings to the triggering of the early stages of the satiety cascade 10 through cognitive factors and sensory attributes such as visual and oral cues; whereas food forms might not affect the later processes in satiety cascade that are postulated to be governed by post-ingestive and post-absorptive factors Foods with high viscosity also appeared to play a key role in appetite suppression compared to food with low viscosity 20 , 22 , 51 , Aiming to determine the effect of viscosity on satiety, Solah et al.
It was found that hunger was lower after participants consumed the high viscous alginate drink as compared to those who consumed low viscous ones.
The authors speculated that such findings were related to the gastric distention as a result of the ingested gel-forming fibre, although they did not measure the rheological properties of these foods in the gastric situation.
In a rather long-term 7 non-consecutive days over a month study, Yeomans et al. They found that initially, appetite was suppressed after consuming high viscous foods as compared with those who consumed low viscous foods, corroborating the afore-mentioned effect of viscosity on satiety.
They related their findings to a slower gastric emptying rate in the high viscous food. However, after repeated consumption of the drinks with seven non-consecutive days over a month, there were no noticeable differences in satiety between the low and high viscous conditions Expected satiation was higher for both high energy drinks and lower for both low energy drinks irrespective of the viscosity of the foods.
This suggests that in a repeated consumption setting, the effect of viscosity can be negligible. It is noteworthy that some of the authors relate their findings of increased satiety after consuming high viscous foods to a slower gastric emptying rate, which should be interpreted with some caution.
For instance, Camps et al. The increase in the energy load led to slower gastric emptying over time; it only significantly slowed the emptying under the low-energy-load condition. Therefore, they suggested that viscosity loses its reducing effect on hunger if energy load is increased to a meal size of kcal indicating that viscosity may not always affect the later parts of satiety cascade through delayed gastric emptying route, but contributes to the early parts of satiety cascade via mouth feel and oral residence time.
In addition to form and viscosity, textural complexity has also shown some significant effects on appetite control. However, the term textural complexity is rather poorly defined in the literature. Often it refers to the degree of heterogeneity or inhomogeneity in a food where the preload includes some inclusions, which distinguishes it from a control; the latter having a homogenous texture i.
without inclusions. This research domain of studying the effects of so-called textural complexity on satiety is still in its early infancy. Tang et al. gels layered with particulate inclusions were served. The authors noticed that higher inhomogeneity in the gels with particle inclusions led to a decrease in hunger and desire to eat, and an increase in fullness ratings, suggesting that levels of textural complexity may have an impact on post-ingestion or post-absorption processes leading to a slowing effect on feelings of hunger.
The technique of aeration, i. incorporation of bubbles in a food has been also used as a textural manipulation and been shown to have an influence on satiety. Melnikov et al. The authors attributed the findings to the effect of the air bubbles on gastric volume leading to the feelings of fullness.
In thirteen studies out of the 29 studies, food texture was reported to have no effect on appetite ratings. This disparity in the results may be associated with the methodology employed. For instance, in several studies 27 , 50 , 58 participants were instructed to eat their usual breakfast at home.
Therefore, the appetite level before the preload was not controlled and this might have influenced the appetite rating results.
Furthermore, some studies did not conceal the purpose of the study from the participants 18 , Moreover, Mourao et al. As such, the time interval between ad libitum intake and preload may have accounted for variation in outcomes All these factors may explain the disparities with regards to the effects of food texture on subjective appetite ratings.
Contrary to our expectations, Juvonen et al. The authors speculate that after consuming a high viscous drink, viscosity of the product may delay and prevent the close interaction between the nutrients and gastrointestinal mucosa required for efficient stimulation of enteroendocrine cells and peptide release.
The same results were found in regard to food form. Zhu et al. They related it to the capacity of CCK to be secreted in the duodenum in response to the presence of nutrients. As such, they suggest that the increase in the surface area of the nutrients due to the smaller particle sizes resulted from the pureeing could stimulate secretion of CCK more potently.
The rest of the studies found no significant effect of food texture form, viscosity or complexity on triggering relevant gut peptides.
This may be due to the type of macronutrients used in such intervention. Therefore, one may argue that the effect of food texture is only restricted to early stages of satiety cascade rather than later stages, where the type and content of macronutrient might play a decisive role.
However, such interpretations might be misleading owing to the limited number of studies in this field. Also, in the majority of studies conducted so far, the biomarkers were limited to one gut peptide, such as CKK 19 , 60 , 61 or ghrelin 57 , 58 , which provides a selective impression of the effects on gut peptides.
Measuring more than one gut peptide could provide richer data and wider understanding of the relationship between food texture and gut peptides, which has yet to be fully evaluated Seven out of the total 29 studies found a significant effect of texture on food intake.
For example, in the study by Flood and Rolls 65 , 58 participants consumed apple segments solid food on one day and then apple sauce liquid food made from the same batch of apples used in the whole fruit conditions on another day.
The preload was controlled for the energy density and consumed within 10 min and the ad libitum meal was served after a total of 15 min.
As a result, they found that apple pieces reduced total energy intake at lunch as compared to the apple sauce, therefore suggesting that consuming whole fruits before a meal can enhance satiety and reduce subsequent food intake.
However, it is worth noting that they had a different experimental approach in contrast to the rest of the studies in this systematic review.
First, an ad libitum meal was served and then followed by a fixed preload consisting of solid and beverage form with one predominant macronutrient milk-protein, watermelon-carbohydrate and coconut-fat.
The time between ad libitum meal and the preload was not stated; it is only clear that it was served at lunch time. Food records were kept on each test day for 24 h to determine energy intake.
Despite this different approach, it was demonstrated that solid food led to a lower subsequent energy intake compared with liquid food counterparts.
Consequently, this study supports an independent effect of texture on energy intake. In terms of viscosity, it has been found that higher viscous food can also lead to a reduced subsequent energy intake.
Authors reported that the beverage with high-viscosity led to a lower energy intake compared to the low-viscous beverage when energy consumption during the meal consumed ad libitum and during the rest of the test day was combined.
Although authors attribute their findings to a slower gastric emptying rate, they did not measure it directly, nor was the effect of viscosity on mouth feel or oral residence time affecting early stages of satiety cascade investigated.
Even with a limited number of studies, textural complexity has been demonstrated to have a clear impact on subsequent food intake. For instance, in the studies of Tang et al. Interestingly, Krop et al. These authors related their findings to hydrating and mouth-coating effects after ingesting the high lubricating carrageenan-alginate hydrogels that in turn led to a lower snack intake.
Moreover, they demonstrated that it was not the intrinsic chewing properties of hydrogels but the externally manipulated lubricity of those gel boli i. gel and simulated saliva mixture that influenced the snack intake. All these reports suggest that there is a growing interest in assessing food texture from a textural complexity perspective.
This strategy needs attention in future satiety trials as well as longer-term repeated exposure studies. The energy density of the preload across the studies varied from zero kcal 29 or a modest energy density 40 kcal 26 , 27 up to a higher value of — — kcal 18 , 19 see the Supplementary Table S2.
It is noteworthy that the lower the energy density of the preload, the shorter the time interval between the intervention preload and the next meal ad libitum meal. Some of these studies showed an effect of texture on appetite ratings and food intake, with food higher in heterogeneity leading to a suppression of appetite and reduction in subsequent food intake 26 , Also, gels with no calories but high in their lubrication properties showed a reduction in snack intake Contrary to those textures with zero or modest levels of calories, those textures high in calories tended to have a larger time gap between the intervention preload and the next meal.
An interesting pattern observed across these studies employing high calorie-dense studies, is that an effect of texture on appetite ratings was found but no effect on food intake 22 , 61 , Therefore, in addition to the high energy density of the preload, it appears that time allowed between the preload and the next meal is an important methodological parameter.
A total of 23 articles were included in the meta-analysis. Two articles were excluded as data on a number of outcomes were missing 19 , Meta-analysis on structural complexity 26 , 27 , lubrication 29 , aeration 54 and gut peptides could not be performed due to the limited number of studies that addressed this issue, and therefore a further four articles were excluded.
Finally, meta-analysis was performed on the effect of form and viscosity of food on three outcomes: hunger, fullness and food intake.
Data from 22 within-subjects and 1 between-subjects trials reporting comparable outcome measures were synthesised in the meta-analyses. These articles were expanded into 35 groups as some studies provided more than one comparison group.
Meta-analyses presenting combined estimates and levels of heterogeneity were carried out on studies investigating form total of 20 subgroups, participants and viscosity total of 15 subgroups, participants for the three outcomes hunger, fullness and food intake see data included in the meta-analysis in Supplementary Tables S4 a—c.
Meta-analysis of effect of food texture on hunger ratings. The diamond indicates the overall estimated effect. ID represents the identification. There was no difference in fullness between groups for either of the two subgroups see Fig.
Meta-analysis of effect of food texture on fullness ratings. A meta-analysis of participants from 11 subgroups based on viscosity revealed an overall significant increase in fullness for higher viscosity food of 5.
Meta-analysis on effect of food texture on food intake. Funnel plots see Supplementary Figure S1 a—c reveal that there was some evidence of asymmetry and therefore publication bias may be present, particularly for the meta-analyses for hunger. In this comprehensive systematic review and meta-analysis, we investigated the effects of food texture on appetite, gut peptides and food intake.
The hypothesis tested was that food with higher textural characteristics solid form, higher viscosity, higher lubricity, higher degree of heterogeneity, etc. would lead to a greater suppression of appetite and reduced food intake.
Likewise, the quantitative analysis meta-analysis clearly indicated a significant decrease in hunger with solid food compared to liquid food. Also, a significant increase was noted in fullness with high viscous food compared to low viscous food.
However, no effect of food form on fullness was observed. Food form showed a borderline significant decrease in food intake with solid food having the main effect. The main explanation for the varying outcomes could be the methodology applied across the studies which was supported by a moderate to a high heterogeneity of studies in the meta-analysis.
Within the preload study designs that were included in the current article, attention should be paid to the following factors that were shown to play an important role in satiety and satiation research: macronutrient composition of the preload, time lapse between preload and test meal, and test meal composition Considerable data supports the idea that the macronutrient composition, energy density, physical structure and sensory qualities of food plays an important role in satiety and satiation.
For instance, it has been demonstrated that eating a high-protein and high-carbohydrate preload can lead to a decrease in hunger ratings and reduced food intake in comparison with eating high-fat preload As such, it is worth noting that interventions across the studies included in this systematic review and meta-analysis differed hugely in terms of macronutrient composition.
For example, in some studies the preload food was higher in fat and carbohydrate 25 , 64 compared to protein which may be a reason for finding no effect on appetite and food intake. In contrast, where the preload was high in protein 57 , a significant suppression of appetite ratings was observed.
Moreover, it is important to highlight that a recent development in the food science community is the ability to create products such as hydrogel-based that do not contain any calories. As these gels are novel products, they are also free from any prior learning or expected postprandial satisfaction that could influence participants.
These hydrogels have been proven to have an impact on satiety 26 and satiation 29 suggesting there is an effect of food texture alone, independent of calories and macronutrients composition. An important factor that may also explain variation in outcomes, may be the timing between preload and test meal.
It has been argued that the longer the time interval between preload and test meal the lower the effect of preload manipulation Accordingly, the range of intervals between preload and test meal differed substantially across the studies included in this systematic review: from 10 to min.
Studies with a shorter time interval 10—15 min between preload and ad libitum food intake showed an effect of food texture on subsequent food intake 26 , 27 , In contrast, those studies with a longer time interval, such as Camps et al.
As such, it can be deduced that the effects of texture might be more prominent in studies tracking changes in appetite and food intake over a shorter period following the intervention.
In addition, the energy density of the preload is a key factor that should not be discounted when designing satiety trials on food texture. For instance, the lower the energy density of the preload, the shorter the interval between the intervention and next meal should be in order to detect an effect of food texture on satiation as observed by Tang et al.
Therefore, the different time intervals between preload and ad libitum test meal, and a difference in energy densities of the preload can lead to a modification of outcomes, which might confound the effect of texture itself.
The test meals in the studies were served either as a buffet-style participants could choose from a large variety of foods or as a single course food choice was controlled.
It has been noticed that in studies where the test meal was served in a buffet style 25 , 53 , 66 , there was no effect on subsequent food intake.
Choosing from a variety of foods can delay satiation, stimulate more interest in different foods offered and encourage increased food intake 75 leading to the same level of intake on both conditions e. solid and liquid conditions. In contrast, in studies that served test meal as a single course 26 , 27 , 29 , 67 , the effect of texture on subsequent food intake has been shown as more prominent.
Therefore, providing a single course meal in satiety studies may have scientific merit although it might be far from real-life setting.
It was also noticeable that some studies with a larger sample size 17 , 20 , 60 showed less effect of food texture on hunger and fullness in our meta-analysis.
Although, it is not possible to confirm the reasons why this is the case we can only speculate it could be due to considerable heterogeneity across the studies. For instance, one of the reasons could be the selection criteria of the participants.
Even though, we saw no substantial differences from the information reported in individual studies there may be other important but unreported factors contributing to this heterogeneity. Furthermore, studies with larger sample sizes often have larger variation in the selected participant pool than in smaller studies 76 which could potentially reduce the precision of the pooled effects of food texture on appetite ratings but at the same time may produce results that are more generalizable to other settings.
Although the meta-analysis showed a clear but modest effect of texture on hunger, fullness and food intake, the exact mechanism behind such effects remains elusive.
Extrinsically-introduced food textural manipulations such as those covered in this meta-analysis might have triggered alterations in oral processing behaviour, eating rate or other psychological and physiological processing in the body. However, at this stage, to point out one single mechanism underlying the effect of texture on satiety and satiation would be premature and could be misleading.
A limited number of studies have also included physiological measurements such as gut peptides with the hypothesis that textural manipulation can trigger hormonal release influencing later parts of the Satiety Cascade 9 , However, with only eight studies that measured gut peptides, of which five failed to show any effect of texture, it is hard to support one mechanism over another.
Employing food textural manipulations such as increasing viscosity, lubricating properties and the degree of heterogeneity appear to be able to trigger effects on satiation and satiety. However, information about the physiological mechanism underlying these effects have not been revealed by an examination of the current literature.
Unfortunately, many studies in this area were of poor-quality experimental design with no or limited control conditions, a lack of the concealment of the study purpose to participants and a failure to register the protocol before starting the study; thus, raising questions about the transparency and reporting of the study results.
Future research should apply a framework to standardize procedures such as suggested by Blundell et al. It is, therefore, crucial to carry out more studies involving these types of well-characterized model foods and see how they may affect satiety and food intake.
To date, only one study 29 has looked at the lubricating capacity of food using hydrogels with no calories which clearly showed the effect of texture alone; eliminating the influence of energy content. As such, a clear gap in knowledge of the influence of food with higher textural characteristics, such as lubrication, aeration, mechanical contrast, and variability in measures of appetite, gut peptide and food intake is identified through this systematic review and meta-analysis.
There are limited number of studies that have assessed gut peptides ghrelin, GLP-1, PPY, and CCK in relation to food texture to date.
Apart from the measurement of gut peptides, no study has used saliva biomarkers, such as α-amylase and salivary PYY to show the relationship between these biomarkers and subjective appetite ratings. Therefore, it would be of great value to assess appetite through both objective and subjective measurements to examine possible correlations between the two.
Besides these aspects, there are other cofactors that are linked to food texture and hard to control, affecting further its effect on satiety and satiation. To name, pleasantness, palatability, acceptability, taste and flavour are some of the cofactors that should be taken into account when designing future satiety studies.
In addition, effects of interactions between these factors such as taste and texture, texture and eating rate etc. on satiety can be important experiments that need future attention.
For instance, the higher viscous food should have at least 10— factor higher viscosity than the control at orally relevant shear rate i. Therefore, objectively characterizing the preloads in the study by both instrumental and sensory terms is important to have a significant effect of texture on satiety.
Furthermore, having a control condition, such as water or placebo condition, will make sure that the effects seen are due to the intervention preload and not to some other factors.
Also, time to the next meal is crucial. Studies with a low energy density intervention should reduce the time between intervention and the next meal. Also, double-blind study designs should be considered to reduce the biases.
Finally, intervention studies with repeated exposure to novel food with higher textural characteristics and less energy density are needed to clearly understand their physiological and psychological consequences, which will eventually help to create the next-generation of satiety- and satiation-enhancing foods.
Rexrode, K. et al. Abdominal adiposity and coronary heart disease in women. These foods help to keep a normal blood sugar level, which is essential for providing energy to the cells. Foods high in carbohydrates include pasta, rice, bread, beans, and fruit.
Fats: Fats contribute to fullness in two ways. First, the presence of fat in a meal slows down the rate of digestion. Fat is also the slowest part of food to be digested. It plays an important role in prolonging fullness. Foods high in fats include nuts, salad dressing, nut butters, full-fat dairy products, avocados, oils, and butters.
Fiber: Fiber is an indigestible type of carbohydrate, which adds bulk and slows the absorption of carbohydrates into the bloodstream. Fruit is high in fiber and provides bulk that may help you feel full for longer. Whole fruit has a stronger effect on fullness than fruit juice.
In fact, it provides all the essential amino acids and is therefore considered a complete protein source The protein and fiber content of quinoa may increase feelings of fullness and help you eat fewer calories overall 4 , 7.
Nuts like almonds and walnuts are energy-dense, nutrient-rich snack options. One older study found that chewing almonds 40 times led to a greater reduction in hunger and increased feelings of fullness compared with chewing 10 or 25 times Another review of 13 trials concluded that chewing foods more thoroughly could reduce self-reported hunger and food intake by altering levels of certain hormones that regulate appetite Nuts are a popular snack choice.
MCT oil consists of medium-length chains of fatty acids, which enter the liver from the digestive tract and can be turned into ketone bodies. According to some studies, ketone bodies can have an appetite-reducing effect One study found that people who ate breakfasts supplemented with MCT oil in liquid form consumed significantly fewer calories throughout the day compared with a control group Another study compared the effects of medium- and long-chain triglycerides and found that those who ate medium-chain triglycerides with breakfast consumed fewer calories at lunch MCT oil can be converted into ketone bodies and may significantly reduce appetite and calorie intake.
Studies have found that popcorn is more filling than other popular snacks, such as potato chips Several factors may contribute to its filling effects, including its high fiber content and low energy density 6 , 9. However, note that the popcorn you prepare yourself in a pot or air-popper machine is the healthiest option.
Adding a lot of fat to the popcorn can increase the calorie content significantly. Filling foods possess certain qualities, such as the tendency to be high in fiber or protein and have a low energy density.
Additionally, these foods tend to be whole, single-ingredient foods — not highly processed foods. Focusing on whole foods that fill you up with fewer calories may help you lose weight in the long run. Our experts continually monitor the health and wellness space, and we update our articles when new information becomes available.
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