Sports Endurwnce - Open volume 3Article number: 8 Cite this article. Metrics details. Endurance athletes enndurance periodized training in order to prepare for main Acai berry wellness and maximize Macronutrient ratios for performance.
However, the coupling between alterations complsition total energy expenditure TEEenergy intake, compositiob body Fat intake and whole foods during compodition seasonal training endurancs is Body composition and endurance training.
The purpose of this study was to Matcha green tea for digestion systematically analyze TEE, Harmful effects of extreme sugar restrictions intake, and body composition trainnig highly trained athletes of Healthy meal planning endurance disciplines and of both sexes and 2 cokposition fluctuations in these parameters Mindful approaches to drinking the training Herbal weight loss inspiration. An electronic database enduurance was conducted on the SPORTDiscus and MEDLINE January —31 January databases using a combination of teaining keywords.
Two independent reviewers identified potentially relevant studies. Where a consensus was not reached, a third nad was consulted. Articles were excluded if body composition was assessed by skinfold measurements, TEE was assessed by questionnaires, or data could not be split between teaining sexes.
Two reviewers traniing the quality of studies independently. Subjects were categorized according to Macronutrient ratios for performance sex and endurance discipline and Macronutrient ratios for performance study allocated a tralning within categories based on the number of subjects composiition.
From citations, abd were identified as potentially relevant, with 82 enduranxe all of the inclusion envurance. Limitations of Leafy greens for glowing skin present study included insufficient data Calorie intake for weight loss available cpmposition all seasonal training phases and thus low explanatory power of ccomposition parameters.
Additionally, Macronutrient ratios for performance classification of endurace different seasonal training phases has to be discussed. Male and female endurance athletes show important training Interval training programs fluctuations in TEE, compositiln intake, and body Stress relief through positive affirmations. Therefore, endurajce intake traaining should take into consideration other taining including the actual training load, TEE, compoeition body composition goals of the ocmposition.
Endurance athletes show training seasonal fluctuations Macronutrient ratios for performance TEE, energy intake, and body wnd. Dietary recommendations should traiinng the actual training load, TEE, Fermented foods and allergies body composition goals.
Flaxseeds for reducing bloating and gas endurance athletes are characterized by high fluctuations of TEE, mainly due to the variability of the energy expended compoeition sporting activities. During heavy endurqnce exercise e. On compozition other hand, during recovery days, pre-competition tapers, or during the off-season, the energy expended Body composition and endurance training activities is far less.
Therefore, TEE is Bodh to be much lower and may even reach levels comparable compositiob that of sedentary behavior. An appropriate energy intake supports cojposition body function, determines the capacity for intake of macronutrients trainign micronutrients, and assists Pycnogenol and menopause symptoms manipulating body composition in athletes [ 9 ].
It is Bod challenge for each endurance athlete to appropriately match energy intake Stimulant-free fat burners TEE in composktion to achieve energy balance and thus, Body composition and endurance training stability, enddurance on a micro level i.
This allows runners and cyclists compositin reach endurwnce economy of movement and better thermoregulatory capacity from a favorable ratio of taining to surface area and less endurancf from subcutaneous fat tissue. Elite endurance athletes are therefore enduranve by low body mass and body comosition content.
For example, in elite Kenyan endurance runners, the body fat percentage was 7. In the same athletes, body traiinng index BMI anv However, these athletes were in peak physical conditions as the investigations were undertaken and ebdurance low body Bldy percentage and compositon weight might be an advantage cmoposition competition.
Achieving endursnce negative energy balance and a enduraance loss of body Calcium and joint health fat masses Vibrant vegetable salads preparation for Cranberry relish recipes can be accomplished in phases with high daily TEE solely by the reduction of energy intake, enduranve any further training Nourishing post-exercise meals increases could cause overtraining [ 12 ].
Hraining, the nutritional goals and requirements of endurance athletes are not static over the training year. Since endurance athletes undertake a periodized training program and follow periodized body composition goals, Body composition and endurance training nutritional support also needs to be periodized [ 9 ].
Usually, the trakning training schedule of Bod elite endurance athlete is traininy into distinct phases, each with very specific objectives. Bodt is necessary to maximize physiological adaptations for improved performance, usually scheduled to peak around the main competitions of the year [ 14 ].
The principle of enurance periodization was first introduced in the s by the Soviet trainer Compositin Matveyev [ 15 ] and has not fundamentally changed since then [ 14 ]. Enrurance basis of this model is to prepare the athlete for one or more compositon competitions compositikn the year by separating the training into the following three main phases macrocycles : preparatory, competitive, and transition phases [ 15 ].
The preparatory phase is characterized by predominantly high-volume training at moderate intensities, which improves endurance capacity and provides a more efficient use of fuel substrates.
During the late preparatory phase, training volume is reduced while intensity is gradually increased. The goal of this phase is to reach peak performance and to transfer the training effects into the competitive phase, where exercise intensity is the highest.
In the week before an important competition, volume and intensity are typically decreased taper phase to allow the body to optimally recover for competition. The days and weeks after a main competition are characterized by low-intensity and low-volume training, with goals to induce regeneration and to prepare the athlete mentally and physically for the next training cycle transition phase [ 1416 ].
Although the concept of training periodization in elite endurance sports has been established for a long time, the coupling of periodized training with nutrition and body composition has gained scientific awareness only recently [ 17 ]. Nowadays, there are guidelines for carbohydrate, protein, and fat intake during training and competition phases, not exclusively focusing on endurance sports [ 19 — 21 ].
Meanwhile, for endurance athletes, sport-specific dietary intake recommendations were developed only for a few endurance disciplines e. But it remains unclear whether endurance athletes are actually following these nutrient guidelines across all seasonal training phases. The validity of either body composition, energy intake, or TEE-determination in athletes strongly depends on the methods used.
The measurement of body composition in general is prone to error. It has been shown that acute food or fluid ingestion [ 28 ], subject positioning [ 29 ], previous physical activity [ 30 ], and hydration status [ 31 ] have an impact on reliability of body composition measurement.
Since endurance athletes often train several times per day, it might be difficult to assure best conditions for body composition assessment. According to a recent methodology review performed by Nana et al. However, other methods like skinfold measurements require highly experienced investigators [ 32 ] and strongly depend on the number of measurement sites and the formula used to calculate the percentage of body fat [ 33 ].
Therefore, it is important to report standardization protocols in order to evaluate the quality of data assessment. It was shown that the magnitude of under-reporting increases as energy requirements increase [ 34 ]. Since endurance athletes are often characterized by high TEE, we must assume that these athletes are very prone to a high percentage of under-reporting.
For determination of TEE objective methods such as doubly labelled water DLW or heart frequency measurements are available. However, in many studies subjective methods such as activity records and activity questionnaires are used in order to assess the activity level and TEE of subjects.
These methods estimate TEE or activity level and their validity strongly depends on the breadth of the activity dimensions analyzed. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to 1 systematically analyze TEE, energy intake, and body composition in highly trained athletes of various endurance disciplines and of both sexes with focusing on objective assessment methods and 2 analyze fluctuations in these parameters across the training season.
We hypothesized that endurance athletes show large fluctuations of TEE during different seasonal training phases due to differing exercise loads, and concomitant alterations in energy intake and body composition.
The review protocol was developed according to the Meta-analysis of Observational Studies in Epidemiology Guidelines for meta-analyses and systematic reviews of observational studies [ 53 ]. A systematic literature search was performed to retrieve articles pertaining to body composition, energy intake, and TEE in endurance athletes across the training season.
One researcher JH conducted the search for publications on 31 January in the electronic databases MEDLINE via PubMed and SPORTDiscus with Full Text via EBSCOHost. A hand search of relevant reviews was performed to obtain additional articles missed by the database search.
No individual or organization was contacted to receive further publications. Limits included articles published in the English language, human studies, and publishing date limits between and January Keywords were searched as free text in the title, abstract, and subject heading.
A detailed overview of search strategies in the two databases can be obtained in Additional file 1 : Table S1. Two researchers independently assessed the eligibility of the records by screening the title, abstract, and keywords for inclusion and exclusion criteria.
An agreement between the two researchers was quantified by kappa statistics [ 54 ]. The full texts of all abstracts meeting the eligibility criteria were retrieved and subjected to a second assessment for relevance performed by one author JH.
Articles were excluded from the review if 1 the article was only in abstract form or a case report, 2 data could not be split between the sexes where both male and female subjects were analyzed3 body composition was assessed by skinfold measurements, 4 daily TEE was assessed by the use of questionnaires, and 5 descriptive quantitative results were not reported in a text or tabular form.
Any difference in assessments between the two researchers was discussed in the first instance or resolved by a third author KM. All relevant articles were examined for full methodological quality using a modified version of the Downs and Black [ 55 ] checklist for the assessment of the methodological quality of randomized and non-randomized studies of health care interventions.
According to Fox et al. The maximum possible total score was Two researchers assessed the study quality independently, with differences resolved by consensus or by a third author KM. The agreement between the two researchers was quantified by kappa statistics [ 54 ].
Based on the assessment of the methodological study quality, no studies were excluded and no additional analyses were undertaken. The methodological quality of the included studies is shown in Additional file 2 : Table S2. If the same subjects were analyzed during different time points in the same seasonal phase e.
To enable comparisons between studies, reported units were converted into standard units. These conversions were performed by using the reported mean values of the outcomes. According to the definition by Wang et al. Duplicate publications from the same data set were identified according to the criteria published in the Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Intervention [ 58 ].
The most complete record was then used for data extraction. According to the traditional periodization model, the reported seasonal training phases of data assessment were clustered into three groups that included the preparation phase, the competition phase, and the transition phase [ 14 — 16 ].
A detailed overview of the clustering can be obtained in Table 1. The main outcome measures were body composition fat mass, FFMenergy intake, and TEE of endurance athletes across the season. Once all of the relevant data were extracted, the weighted mean and standard deviation of the weighted mean were calculated for the main outcome variables.
Based on the number of subjects examined within the study, relative to the total number of subjects examined for the specific variable, a percentage weight w was allocated to each result within each outcome variable and used for the calculation of the overall weighted mean X̅ w and standard deviation of the weighted mean SD w for each variable [ 59 ].
Statistical analyses were performed using the statistical software SPSS statistics version 22 for Windows IBM Corp. Kolmogorov-Smirnov tests were performed to check for normal distributions.
All parameters were normally distributed except body mass, fat mass, and FFM. To test for comparisons of subgroups, one-factorial analyses of variance ANOVAs with Scheffé post hoc tests parametric and Kruskal-Wallis tests H -test with Mann-Whitney U post hoc tests non-parametric were performed.
When multiple non-parametric post hoc tests were applied, Bonferroni-adjusted alpha levels were applied. Since parameters for body composition were not normally distributed, we abstained from multiple statistical comparisons between seasonal training phases and endurance disciplines to reduce the risk of type I errors.
For comparisons of energy intake and TEE during different seasonal training phases, paired t -tests were used. The separate analysis of studies, where energy intake and TEE were assessed in parallel, and longitudinal studies that reported energy intake during different training season phases, were performed using the free software for meta-analysis Review Manager 5 version 5.
The flow chart for the study selection process is shown in Fig.
: Body composition and endurance training| Access this article | Bone mineral density of female athletes in different sports. Endocrine Rev 23 1 — Comparison of the effects of different training methods on arylesterase activity and paraoxonase activity levels in hot environment. Resistance training volume and post exercise energy expenditure. Article PubMed Google Scholar Jakicic, J. |
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| How to Improve Body Composition With Nutrition and Exercise | First, she is adding another training modality that will cost energy calories. Second, and most importantly, she is adding lean body weight in the form of muscle. Muscle is metabolically active--it burns energy. You can see how these effects could be a double whammy for her body fat. In addition, lean muscular tissue gives the sculpted look that people who train for body composition desire. Body composition training and strength training are not enemies, especially not in the long term. But even in the short term, strength training makes sense; otherwise, the body reaches a plateau all too soon. Why wait until the muscles have decreased in size because of the cardiovascular endurance training and until the metabolic cost of living has gone down because of the weight loss? If you pair strength training with the traditional cardiovascular endurance exercise in a planned program, you can create an effective symbiotic relationship. Previous Next. Call Us Hours Mon-Fri 7am - 5pm CST. Contact Us Get in touch with our team. FAQs Frequently asked questions. Drenowatz C, Hand GA, Sagner M, Shook RP, Burgess S, Blair SN. The prospective association between different types of exercise and body composition. Med Sci Sports Exerc. Prather AA, Leung CW, Adler NE, Ritchie L, Laraia B, Epel ES. Short and sweet: Associations between self-reported sleep duration and sugar-sweetened beverage consumption among adults in the United States. Sleep Health. Duraccio KM, Whitacre C, Krietsch KN, et al. Losing sleep by staying up late leads adolescents to consume more carbohydrates and a higher glycemic load. Published online December 17, zsab O'Donnell S, Beaven CM, Driller MW. From pillow to podium: a review on understanding sleep for elite athletes. Nat Sci Sleep. Chang CS, Liu IT, Liang FW, et al. Effects of age and gender on body composition indices as predictors of mortality in middle-aged and old people. Sci Rep. Barber TM, Hanson P, Weickert MO, Franks S. Obesity and polycystic ovary syndrome: implications for pathogenesis and novel management strategies. Clin Med Insights Reprod Health. Cardoos N. Overtraining syndrome. Curr Sports Med Reports. National Academy of Sports Medicine. Exploring the science of muscle recovery. Bellicha A, Baak MA, Battista F, et al. Effect of exercise training on weight loss, body composition changes, and weight maintenance in adults with overweight or obesity: An overview of 12 systematic reviews and studies. Obesity Reviews. Slater GJ, Dieter BP, Marsh DJ, Helms ER, Shaw G, Iraki J. Is an energy surplus required to maximize skeletal muscle hypertrophy associated with resistance training. Front Nutr. Schoenfeld BJ, Ogborn D, Krieger JW. Effects of resistance training frequency on measures of muscle hypertrophy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Sports Med. Schoenfeld BJ, Contreras B, Krieger J, et al. Resistance training volume enhances muscle hypertrophy but not strength in trained men. By Rachel MacPherson, BA, CPT Rachel MacPherson is a health writer, certified personal trainer, and exercise nutrition coach based in Halifax. Use limited data to select advertising. Create profiles for personalised advertising. Use profiles to select personalised advertising. Create profiles to personalise content. Use profiles to select personalised content. Measure advertising performance. Measure content performance. Understand audiences through statistics or combinations of data from different sources. Develop and improve services. Use limited data to select content. List of Partners vendors. By Rachel MacPherson is a health writer, certified personal trainer, certified strength and conditioning specialist, and exercise nutrition coach based in Halifax. Rachel MacPherson, BA, CPT. Learn about our editorial process. Learn more. Medical Reviewers confirm the content is thorough and accurate, reflecting the latest evidence-based research. Content is reviewed before publication and upon substantial updates. Medically reviewed by Barbie Cervoni MS, RD, CDCES, CDN. Learn about our Medical Review Board. Table of Contents View All. Table of Contents. How to minimise the health risks to athletes who compete in weight-sensitive sports review and position statement on behalf of the Ad Hoc Research Working Group on Body Composition, Health and Performance, under the auspices of the IOC Medical Commission. Br J Sports Med. World Health Organization WHO. Obesity: preventing and managing the global epidemic. 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In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript. Studies comparing the effect of endurance and endurance-strength training on cardiometabolic markers provided inconsistent results. Therefore, the study aimed to compare the effect of endurance and endurance-strength training on body composition and cardiometabolic parameters in abdominally obese women. During the week intervention, participants performed supervised one-hour training three times a week. Body composition, blood pressure BP , markers of glucose and lipid homeostasis, and myoglobin levels were measured before and after the intervention. In total, 85 subjects completed the trial. Both interventions decreased fat mass and visceral adipose tissue and increased free fat mass, appendicular lean mass index and lean mass index. Neither endurance training nor endurance-strength training affected glucose and lipid metabolism. However, only endurance training significantly decreased paraoxonase and myoglobin levels. Both training programmes significantly decreased BP, with a more reduction of diastolic BP noted in the endurance group. In conclusion, both training programmes had a favourable effect on body composition but did not improve glucose and lipid homeostasis. Besides, endurance training decreased paraoxonase activity and myoglobin levels and was more effective in reducing BP. This type of obesity is an independent risk factor for cardiovascular diseases, dyslipidaemia, hypertension, type 2 diabetes mellitus and impaired glucose tolerance. It also predisposes to several types of cancers 1 , 2. It should be noted that this risk increases with a higher amount of abdominal fat 3 and obesity also results in a higher risk of general mortality 1 , 4. Furthermore, the results of the Framingham Heart Study showed that excessive body weight at the age of 40 reduces life expectancy by around three years 5. Physical activity provides numerous benefits for obese subjects. Together with diet, exercises play an important role in the primary prevention and management of excessive body weight 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 mostly due to favourable impact on body composition, prevention of obesity-related diseases and improve cardiometabolic parameters 10 , 11 , Therefore, the American College of Sports Medicine 13 , 14 , the European College of Sport Science 15 and the American Heart Association 8 recommend a minimum of 30 min of moderate-intensity endurance training five days per week or a minimum of 20 min of vigorous endurance activity three days per week. Besides, regular strength training with eight to twelve repetitions for at least two days per week is also recommended. Several meta-analyses have shown a significant effect of both endurance and strength training on anthropometric and cardiometabolic parameters, providing evidence for reductions in body weight, body mass index BMI , waist circumference, fat mass FM , improved lipid profile, decreased glucose, insulin levels and blood pressure BP 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 , Although the benefits of endurance and strength training alone are well documented, studies comparing the effect of endurance and endurance-strength training on body composition and cardiometabolic markers have proved inconsistent. While some studies reported that combined training is more effective than endurance training alone 21 , 22 , 23 , other studies did not find differences between the effects of both types of training 24 , Moreover, a previous meta-analysis which compared the effect of endurance, strength and combined training including studies with both similar or longer duration than endurance or strength training alone in overweight and obese subjects showed that endurance-strength training significantly increased lean body mass compared to endurance training. However, no other differences were observed between endurance and endurance-strength training As was reported previously, the effect of the exercise intervention on body composition and cardiometabolic markers may significantly differ between men and women 22 , 27 , 28 , Moreover, the effect of training may differ between pre- and postmenopausal women It is well known that menopause is linked to an increased risk number of health conditions, including cardiovascular diseases Besides, it has been shown that men of 70 years of age have lower cardiovascular risk as compared with women at age 50 the median age of menopause 32 33 , Taking into account the negative effect of estrogen decline on the risk of cardiovascular diseases, we assume that women of perimenopausal age merit special attention. Therefore, this study aimed to assess the effect of endurance and endurance-strength training on body composition and cardiometabolic parameters in women aged 50—60 years with abdominal obesity. We hypothesised that there are no differences between the effect of endurance and endurance-strength training on body composition and cardiometabolic parameters in women with abdominal obesity. However, we believe that the training intervention in this age group may prevent further deterioration of health in women. Participant flow through the study is presented in Fig. Out of subjects assessed for eligibility, 90 were excluded because of not meeting the inclusion criteria and 45 subjects declined to participate. Out of the remaining subjects, 52 were randomised to the endurance training group and 49 were assigned to the endurance-strength training group. Only one subject from the endurance-strength training did not start allocated intervention. Eight subjects from endurance training and seven from endurance-strength training discontinued the intervention eight due to health problems, six did not provide reasons but had low adherence to the intervention and one due to family reasons. A total of 85 postmenopausal women 44 for the endurance group and 41 for the endurance-strength training group were included in the final analysis. Besides, no significant side effects occurred. Six subjects reported a problem with joints or muscles, two subjects observed high BP and in one subject swelling was noted. Tables 1 and 2 summarise the baseline demographic and clinical characteristics of the study population. There were no statistically significant differences between groups at baseline. CONSORT flow diagram The Figure was previously published in the Journal of Clinical Medicine which publishes articles under an open access Creative Common CC BY license. The effect of endurance and endurance-strength training on body composition is presented in Table 3. After the intervention period, we observed a decrease of visceral adipose tissue VAT and FM for total and individual parts of the body except the head and an increase of free fat mass FFM , lean mass index LMI and appendicular lean mass index ALMI in both groups. The effect of endurance and endurance-strength training on glucose and insulin homeostasis, lipid metabolism and BP is shown in Table 4. None of the biochemical parameters analysed were affected by any of the training programmes except for paraoxonases PON activity and myoglobin levels which decreased in the endurance group. Fasting glucose and insulin levels, as well as glycated haemoglobin HbA1c , insulin-like growth factor IGF-1 , the homeostatic model assessment for insulin resistance HOMA and the quantitative insulin sensitivity check index QUICKI did not change significantly. The lipid profiles total cholesterol TC , low-density lipoprotein cholesterol LDL-C , high-density lipoprotein cholesterol HDL-C , triglycerides TG showed no significant changes after three months of intervention regardless of the training conditions. However, a significant decrease in systolic SBP and diastolic blood pressure DBP was found in both groups. Table 5 shows a comparison of the mean difference of changes in body composition and Table 6 presents the mean difference of changes in cardiometabolic parameters and BP between endurance and endurance-strength training using the ANCOVA test, adjusted for the baseline measures as a covariate. No differences between the effect of endurance and endurance-strength training on body composition were detected. Moreover, there were no differences between the effect of training programmes on fasting glucose and insulin levels, HbA1c, IGF-1, HOMA-IR and QUICKI as well as lipid profile and apolipoproteins levels. These results showed that endurance and endurance-strength training had no differential effect on body composition and did not affect glucose and lipid homeostasis. However, there were significant differences between the effect of endurance and endurance-strength training on PON activity, myoglobin levels and DBP. In contrast to endurance-strength training, endurance training significantly decreased PON activity, reduced myoglobin levels and was more effective in reducing DBP. We showed that both training programmes had a favourable effect on body composition. Both endurance and endurance-strength training significantly decreased VAT and FM as well as increased FFM, LMI and ALMI. Similar results were obtained in our previous pilot study conducted on a small group of obese women After three months of the intervention, we reported a significant reduction in total body fat and total FM in both groups, while total body lean mass and total FFM decreased only in the endurance-strength training group. Nevertheless, no significant differences were observed between the groups for the investigated parameters. The favourable effect of training on body composition was also reported by Sillanpaa et al. During the week training period, both strength and endurance groups trained two times a week and the combined group trained two times a week for strength and two times a week for endurance. After the intervention, the researchers observed significant reductions in total body fat and percentage of body fat in both groups, accompanied by an increase in FFM in the strength group and the combined group. However, no statistical differences between the groups were noted. In contrast, several studies reported significant differences between the effect of both types of training on body composition 22 , 25 , 27 , 37 , 38 , Church et al. In a recent meta-analysis, Marzolini et al. However, this meta-analysis included studies that compared the effect of endurance and combined training of similar duration and also studies in which combined training required significantly more time than endurance training alone. Moreover, Rossi et al. Park et al. Interestingly, Sanal et al. Another study also suggested that exercise-induced a more pronounced reduction in body weight and FM in men than women The difference in body composition between men and women could partly explain the differences between these results The demographic differences and the various methods adopted to assess body composition may explain the difference between the study results. Physical activity may improve glucose and insulin homeostasis due to the transient increase in glucose uptake by the large exercised muscle mass The possible mechanism also includes positive adjustment of post insulin components such as the density of insulin protein receptors, protein kinase B and glycogen synthesis and glucose transferor protein Nevertheless, in our study, unlike previous studies, none of the training programmes affected glucose and insulin homeostasis. Recently, Azarbayjani et al. Besides, the previous meta-analysis compared the effects of endurance, strength and combined exercise training with no restrictions on the exercise modality, intensity, volume, and frequency on insulin resistance markers in overweight or obese children and adolescents, showing that endurance exercises were associated with declines in fasting insulin levels and HOMA However, AbouAssi et al. Importantly, it should be noted that the superior effect of combined training to endurance or strength training alone was mostly reported in studies where the endurance-strength training was the additive combination of endurance and strength exercises 23 , By comparison, when both groups had approximately equal training times, there were no large differences between groups 37 , The observed differences between studies may be also attributed to different subject characteristics, diet, primary glucose and insulin levels and time of drawing blood sample following the termination of the exercise protocol. Besides, normal insulin sensitivity in most of the study participants before the intervention may partly explain no effect of the intervention on this parameter. The reduction in cholesterol levels is the gold standard in the prevention of cardiovascular diseases In a meta-analysis of , participants, it was reported that reductions in LDL-C levels decreased the incidence of heart attacks and ischaemic strokes It has also been reported that subjects with elevated TC levels have approximately twice the cardiovascular disease risk of those with optimal levels Besides, it has been shown that exercises have a positive impact on the improvement of the lipid profile, however, the optimal type, frequency, intensity and duration of training for improvement of cholesterol levels have not yet been identified Among adults, a recent meta-analysis in subjects with type 2 diabetes suggested that combined training is the most efficacious to improve lipid profile compared with endurance or strength training alone In contrast, a previous meta-analysis conducted in overweight and obese adult subjects observed no significant differences for TC, LDL-C, HDL-C and TG between training programmes However, it should be highlighted that the meta-analyses did not precise if both training programmes had a similar or different volume 26 , Here, we observed no effect of the intervention on the lipid profile and detected no differences between study groups, suggesting that exercise did not meet the intensity needed to improve lipid profiles. However, in our previous pilot study, we applied the same volume, duration and intensity of training and showed increase TC levels in both groups, reduce LDL-C levels in the combined training group and increase HDL-C levels in the endurance training group with no significant differences between the programmes Several factors could potentially explain the differences observed between results reported in this study and previous findings reported in our and other studies, for example, previously documented seasonal variation in cholesterol levels might affect the obtained results Dietary habits, particularly the intake of saturated fatty acids and dietary cholesterol, could also affect the lipid profile Besides, women might be more resistant to change in lipid profile when compared with men. Indeed, Ghahramanloo et al. There is also some evidence that improvements in blood lipids might depend on body weight reduction ox-LDL might play an important role in the development of atherosclerosis. It has been shown to contribute to atherosclerotic plaque formation and progression through several mechanisms, including the induction of endothelial cell activation and dysfunction, macrophage foam cell formation, and smooth muscle cell migration and proliferation Several studies also suggest that regular training may reduce ox-LDL levels. Schjerve et al. Similarly, Tiainen et al. In another study conducted by the same authors, no differences in ox-LDL levels were found between the endurance training group and the control group after six months of intervention, but ox-LDL concentrations were correlated positively with body weight and negatively with VO 2 max These results suggest that the effect of training on ox-LDL concentrations depends on body weight reduction, improvement of physical capacity and intensity of training rather than the type of exercise. Nevertheless, non-differences between groups were noted. The effect of exercises on apolipoproteins levels remains unclear. Kokkinos et al. On the other hand, Said et al. Similarly, Laaksonen et al. Our study, however, showed no effects of endurance or endurance-strength training on ApoA1 or ApoB levels. PON is an HDL-associated esterase that inhibits LDL oxidative modification and suppresses the differentiation of monocytes into macrophages, which is the first stage in the development of atherosclerosis. Furthermore, PON prevents the accumulation of ox-LDL, and low PON activity increases the risk of cardiovascular disease Tas et al. On the other hand, Mahdirejei et al. It is suggested that the effect of physical activity on PON activity is associated with the PON gene polymorphism Myoglobin is a marker used to monitor the effectiveness of workload on muscle tissue in exercise It has been shown that myoglobin levels may increase within 30 min of training 68 and might remain increase even for around five days Moreover, higher levels of myoglobin after training are observed in previously untrained subjects. Besides, an increase in myoglobin serum levels correlates with exercise intensity Our study showed that not only intensity but also type of training may affect myoglobin levels. We observed that week endurance training but not endurance-strength training significantly decreased myoglobin levels with significant differences noted between groups. These results might indicate a better adaptation of muscle tissue on endurance training. It seems that exercises might be effective for the prevention and treatment of hypertension Indeed, our results showed that both types of training significantly decrease BP, with endurance training being more effective than endurance-strength training in the reduction of DBP. Previously, in our pilot study, we also observed a decrease in SBP and DBP after the endurance and endurance-strength intervention but no differences between the groups Several other studies also reported that both endurance 74 , 75 and endurance-strength training 76 , 77 significantly decrease BP, whereas Swift et al. Similarly, Schjerve et al. The present study has several strengths and limitations. Important strengths of this study included the randomised study design and direct verification of the type, amount and intensity of training. Additionally, this study included a large number of subjects providing excellent statistical power to detect differences between training programmes. Finally, we used very strict inclusion and exclusion criteria which eliminated the impact of disrupting factors and included objective and reliable study methods e. The main novelty of the study is comparing the effect of endurance and endurance-strength training both applied at the same volume, duration and intensity in abdominally obese postmenopausal women without serious comorbidities. Moreover, this is one of the first studies, which assessed the effect of both training programmes on ox-LDL, ApoA1, ApoB and PON levels in abdominally obese postmenopausal women without severe comorbidities. Besides, the narrow age range 50—60 years of the study participants allowed us to obtain a more homogeneous group. However, as mentioned, this study only included women with abdominal obesity, therefore, it is unknown if the training programmes would cause similar changes in men of similar age. Moreover, study participants were motivated volunteers who took part in training in a supervised setting, which limited the generalisability of the findings to the general population. Another limitation of this study is a lack of separate strength and control groups. We also did not estimate total, resting and exercise energy expenditure. Other potential confounders included differences in dietary intake and physical activity performed outside the monitoring and supervision by the researchers. Therefore, we did not know how these variables may have affected the present findings. However, all participants were instructed to maintain their normal physical activity level and eating habits. We also did not monitor the subjects after the intervention period, therefore, is unclear which type of training is more effective for the long-term reduction of the burdens of obesity. In conclusion, both training programmes had a favourable effect on body composition in abdominally obese women but did not improve glucose and insulin homeostasis and lipid metabolism. However, we showed that only endurance training significantly decreased PON activity and reduced myoglobin levels. Besides, this type of training seems to be more effective than endurance-strength training in the reduction of DBP. Given the increasing burden of obesity, more research is needed to better understand the effect of different types of exercises on metabolic abnormalities associated with obesity. The study was designed as a prospective parallel randomised trial. The exclusion criteria included secondary obesity, previously diagnosed type 2 diabetes mellitus, coronary artery disease, stroke, congestive heart failure, arrhythmias, conduction disorders, implementation of pharmacological treatment of dyslipidaemia within the last three months, secondary hypertension or poorly controlled hypertension, liver, kidney, or thyroid diseases and cancer diagnosis. Subjects with the acute or chronic inflammatory process, connective tissue disease or arthritis, history of infection during the last month, as well as subjects with any addictions, pregnant and breastfeeding women were also excluded from the study. Study participants should not have used any dietary supplements in the three months before the study. Volunteers were recruited to the study among patients of medical clinics and medical centres in the Greater Poland Voivodeship, in consultation with their doctors and directors of the clinics. After telephone contact, the potential subjects were screened by a physician during an inclusion visit to comply with protocol requirements. The present study was conducted according to the guidelines in the Declaration of Helsinki. The protocol was approved by the Poznan University of Medical Sciences Bioethical Committee refs. All study participants received information about the trial, were informed that participation was voluntary and provided written informed consent. Study participants were aware that they could withdraw at any time without providing reasons. The study design and full trial protocol have been described previously Both groups performed 36 supervised endurance or endurance-strength training, three times per week during the three-month intervention. Subjects who completed less than 29 training were excluded from the analysis. The training programmes consisted of five minutes of warm-up at low intensity, 45 min of endurance exercises in the endurance group or 20 min of strength exercises and 25 min of endurance exercises in the endurance-strength group, five minutes of cycling without load and five minutes of closing stretching. The intensity of both types of training was individually selected for each subject and did not change during the intervention. The goal number of repetitions per set was 16 in barbell curls and 30 in barbell squats. Between the series, short pauses were taken 10—15 s , during which subjects conducted isometric exercises. Aside from the training, all subjects were instructed to maintain their usual physical activity level and eating habits. No deviation from the study protocol was observed. Our previous pilot study also assessed the effect of week endurance and endurance-strength training programmes on body composition, BP and selected biochemical parameters. However, the pilot study included a small number of subjects of heterogeneous age 28—62 years 35 , Due to the negative effect of training on bone health data not published observed in our pilot trial, here we slightly modified endurance training including cycling with a load. The primary outcomes of the study were the effect of endurance and endurance-strength training on endothelial parameters Here, we reported the effect on secondary outcomes, including body composition FM, VAT, ALMI and LMI , biochemical markers glucose and insulin homeostasis and lipid metabolism , BP SBP and DBP. All outcomes were measured and collected at the Poznan University of Medical Sciences before and after the intervention period. Methods used to measure the outcomes were identical in both groups. After at least eight hours of overnight fasting, the following anthropometric parameters were measured body height, body weight, waist and hip circumferences. BMI was calculated and body composition was assessed using a dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry DEXA method with the application of the Hologic Discovery DEXA system Bedford, MA, USA. Based on the examination, FM and FFM for total body and individual parts of the body arms, trunk, legs, head , male android and female gynoid areas were measured. VAT, ALMI and LMI were also assessed. During all measurements, participants were dressed in light clothing and were barefoot. BP was measured during the recruitment visit and on the last visit according to guidelines of the European Society of Hypertension The average of three measurements was used for statistical analysis. Pre- and seven days post-intervention period fasting blood samples were collected for routine analysis of glucose and insulin homeostasis glucose, insulin, HbA1c and IGF-1 levels and lipid metabolism TC, LDL-C, HDL-C, TG , ox-LDL, apolipoproteins ApoA1, ApoB , and PON levels. Besides, myoglobin levels were assessed. All parameters were measured by standard methods as described previously Glucose levels were assessed by the enzymatic method with hexokinase, insulin levels were analysed using the electrochemiluminescence method and HbA1c levels were measured by the turbidimetric immunoinhibitory method in hemolysate prepared from the blood. TC, HDL-C and TG concentrations were assessed using the enzymatic colorimetric method, while LDL-C levels were calculated from the Friedewald formula. The following parameters were measured using the immunoenzymatic method: IGF-1 IGF-1 ELISA kit, DRG Instruments GmbH, Germany , ox-LDL Human ox-LDL ELISA kit, SunRed, China and myoglobin Myoglobin ELISA kit, DRG Instruments GmbH, Germany. Finally, the nephelometric method was used to analysed ApoA1 and ApoB levels. Randomisation was performed via computer software Random Allocation Software, Isfahan, Iran by an independent researcher. |
| ORIGINAL RESEARCH article | Thus, Macronutrient ratios for performance exercisers who maintain high levels of composktion activity Electrolytes deficiency provide valuable insight about the efficacy Macronutrient ratios for performance exercise to minimize deterioration in envurance structures and functions associated with typical aging 6. Body composition, fitness, and metabolic health during strength and endurance training and their combination in middle-aged and older women. Benefits of cardiac rehabilitation and exercise training in elderly women. Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:. Gettman LR, Ward P, Hagan RD. |
Body composition and endurance training -
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Human Movement Sciences and Laura Oberholzer B. Health Science and Technology for their valuable assistance during the literature selection process and quality assessment of relevant articles. JH participated in the design of the study; carried out the data acquisition, analysis and interpretation of the results; and drafted the manuscript.
BK, YS, and KM participated in the conception and design; analysis and interpretation of the results; drafting and revisions of the manuscript for important intellectual content.
All authors read and approved the final manuscript. Juliane Heydenreich, Bengt Kayser, Yves Schutz, and Katarina Melzer declare that there are no conflicts of interests regarding the publication of this paper. Swiss Federal Institute of Sport Magglingen SFISM, Hauptstrasse , , Magglingen, Switzerland.
Faculty of Biology and Medicine, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, , Switzerland. Faculty of Medicine, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, , Switzerland.
You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar. Correspondence to Juliane Heydenreich. Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4. Reprints and permissions. Heydenreich, J. et al. Total Energy Expenditure, Energy Intake, and Body Composition in Endurance Athletes Across the Training Season: A Systematic Review.
Sports Med - Open 3 , 8 Download citation. Received : 07 September Accepted : 24 January Published : 04 February Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:. Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.
Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative. Skip to main content. Search all SpringerOpen articles Search. Download PDF. Abstract Background Endurance athletes perform periodized training in order to prepare for main competitions and maximize performance.
Methods An electronic database search was conducted on the SPORTDiscus and MEDLINE January —31 January databases using a combination of relevant keywords. Results From citations, articles were identified as potentially relevant, with 82 meeting all of the inclusion criteria.
Conclusions Limitations of the present study included insufficient data being available for all seasonal training phases and thus low explanatory power of single parameters.
Key Points Endurance athletes show training seasonal fluctuations in TEE, energy intake, and body composition. Full size image. Methods The review protocol was developed according to the Meta-analysis of Observational Studies in Epidemiology Guidelines for meta-analyses and systematic reviews of observational studies [ 53 ].
Search Strategy A systematic literature search was performed to retrieve articles pertaining to body composition, energy intake, and TEE in endurance athletes across the training season. Literature Selection Two researchers independently assessed the eligibility of the records by screening the title, abstract, and keywords for inclusion and exclusion criteria.
Methodological Quality Assessment All relevant articles were examined for full methodological quality using a modified version of the Downs and Black [ 55 ] checklist for the assessment of the methodological quality of randomized and non-randomized studies of health care interventions.
Table 1 Clustering of seasonal training phases for body composition, energy intake, and total energy expenditure Full size table. Results Description of Studies and Assessment Methods The flow chart for the study selection process is shown in Fig.
Table 2 Characteristics of the studies included in the review of body composition BC , energy intake EI , and total energy expenditure TEE Full size table. Table 3 Physical characteristics of included study estimates Full size table. Energy balance EB of male endurance athletes during preparation and competition phase.
Energy balance EB of female endurance athletes during preparation and competition phase. Table 5 Body composition of included study estimates across the season Full size table. Strengths and Limitations This is, to our knowledge, the first systematic review focusing on fluctuations in TEE, energy intake, and body composition in endurance athletes.
Conclusions Our analysis highlights the important seasonal fluctuations in TEE, energy intake, and body composition in male and female endurance athletes across the training season. References Ravussin E, Bogardus C. CAS PubMed Google Scholar Westerterp KR.
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