After TRF, unlike CR, fasting ghrelin decreased in some TRF studies, whereas it showed no change in several others. Further, a reduction in fasting leptin, insulin, and GLP-1 has been observed. In conclusion, when other determinants of food intake are held equal, the peripheral satiety systems appear to be somewhat similarly affected by CR and TRF with regard to leptin, insulin, and GLP But unlike CR, TRF did not appear to robustly increase ghrelin, suggesting different influences on appetite with a potential decrease of hunger after TRF when compared with CR.

However, there are several established and novel gut peptides that have not been measured within the context of CR and TRF, and studies that have evaluated effects of TRF are often short-term, with nonuniform study designs and highly varying temporal eating patterns. Nutr J.

doi: Dietary restriction can result in weight loss and offers metabolic benefits 3 3. Triffoni-Melo AT, Dick-de-Paula I, Portari GV, Jordao AA, Garcia Chiarello P, Diez-Garcia RW.

Short-term carbohydrate-restricted diet for weight loss in severely obese women. Obes Surg. in the short term. However, weight loss maintenance is difficult to achieve in the long term, possibly because the lower weight makes the organism turn to compensatory mechanisms that increase the food intake and reduce the energy expenditure 4 4.

Sacks FM, Bray GA, Carey VJ, Smith SR, Ryan DH, Anton SD, et al. Comparison of weight-loss diets with different compositions of fat, protein, and carbohydrates. N Engl J Med. Indeed, the majority of people on weight loss programs have difficulty modifying their lifestyle and food intake habits.

Hunger and the desire to consume the usual food may culminate in individuals returning to the food pattern that they used to adopt before the caloric restriction 5 5. Maclean PS, Bergouignan A, Cornier MA, Jackman MR.

Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. Ghrelin, an orexigenic hormone, is implicated in both mealtime hunger and long-term body weight regulation 6 6. Wren AM, Small CJ, Abbott CR, Dhillo WS, Seal LJ, Cohen MA, et al. Ghrelin causes hyperphagia and obesity in rats.

Wren AM, Seal LJ, Cohen MA, Brynes AE, Frost GS, Murphy KG, et al. Ghrelin enhances appetite and increases food intake in humans. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. Plasma ghrelin levels increase in response to diet-induced weight loss, suggesting that ghrelin participates in an adaptive response that limits the weight loss achieved through dieting.

On the other hand, leptin constitutes one of the anorectic messengers to the central nervous system and circulates at concentrations proportional to the fat mass, thereby inhibiting food intake. Lower ghrelin and higher leptin levels occur in obese people 8 8. Shiiya T, Nakazato M, Mizuta M, Date Y, Mondal MS, Tanaka M, et al.

Plasma ghrelin levels in lean and obese humans and the effect of glucose on ghrelin secretion. Ghrelin, obesity and diabetes. Nat Clin Pract Endocrinol Metab.

Hunger and low compliance with the diet limit weight loss during dietary changes 4 4. Individuals who undertake a weight loss program perceive hunger associated with caloric restriction as a negative point 10 Blair-West GW.

Tantalus, restraint theory, and the low-sacrifice diet: the art of reverse abstraction - 10th International Congress on Obesity; September 4, ; Sydney, Australia - Symposium: obesity management: adding art to the science, invited presentation.

Med Gen Med. In contrast, programs that demand less restrictive sacrifice can mitigate such effects 11 Golay A. Dietary and body weight control: therapeutic education, motivational interviewing and cognitive-behavioral approaches for long-term weight loss maintenance.

Nestle Nutr Workshop Ser Clin Perform Programme. Therefore, nutritional strategies that aim to increase satiety; for example, programs that adopt a high-fiber diet, can lead to more satisfactory results 12 Dreher ML, Ford NA.

A Comprehensive Critical Assessment of Increased Fruit and Vegetable Intake on Weight Loss in Women. Gilhooly CH, Das SK, Golden JK, McCrory MA, Rochon J, DeLany JP, et al.

Use of cereal fiber to facilitate adherence to a human caloric restriction program. Aging Clin Exp Res. This study aimed to evaluate how hormones that regulate the appetite, metabolism, hunger, and satiety sensations change in obese women on a short-term caloric restriction based on a high-fiber diet as compared with obese women on a conventional restrictive diet.

This randomized controlled trial study was conducted after approval by the Research Ethics Committee of the University Hospital of Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo. All the participants signed the written informed consent form. The experimental protocol lasted four days.

The high-fiber diet was prepared using the typical menu offered by the hospital added with 24 g of high-fiber foods, such as whole grain bread, linseed, tangerine, pectin, brown rice, wheat bran, and apple. The CG conventional diet relied on refined grains like white rice and white bread. Both diets were fractionated into six daily meals.

Body weight, BMI, body composition fat mass, fat-free mass, and body fat percentage , resting energy expenditure, fasting glucose, basal insulin, HOMA-IR Homeostasis Model Assessment-Insulin Resistance , basal leptin, and basal and postprandial 30 and 60 min after breakfast acylated and total ghrelin were evaluated on the first day day 1 and after three days of caloric restriction day 4.

Hunger and satiety sensations were also assessed during the caloric restriction using visual analogue scales. To this end, the individuals wore light clothes but no shoes. An electronic platform scale Filizola® São Paulo, SP - Brazil with a capacity of kg and precision of 0.

The height was measured using a stadiometer accurate to 0. The BMI was calculated by dividing the body weight kilogram by the square of the height square meter. Fat mass and fat-free mass were determined by dual energy X-ray absorptiometry DXA, Hologic W, Bedford, MA, USA. The calorimetric measurements were conducted on a portable calorimeter VO MedGraphics®, USA.

Weir JB. New methods for calculating metabolic rate with special reference to protein metabolism. J Physiol. Basal insulin was measured by chemiluminescence IMMULITE® Immunoassay System, Siemens Healthcare Diagnostics. Insulin resistance was evaluated by HOMA-IR 15 Matthews DR, Hosker JP, Rudenski AS, Naylor BA, Treacher DF, Turner RC.

Homeostasis model assessment: insulin resistance and beta-cell function from fasting plasma glucose and insulin concentrations in man.

Leptin and acylated and total ghrelin fasting and postprandial were assessed by means of commercial Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay ELISA kits from Millipore Corporation Billerica, MA, USA; Cat.

EZHLSK, Cat. EZGRAK, and Cat. EZGRTK, respectively. During caloric restriction, hunger and satiety were evaluated four times a day, before hunger and after satiety breakfast, lunch, snack, and dinner.

To this end, the methodology adapted from Flint and colleagues 16 Flint A, Raben A, Blundell JE, Astrup A. Reproducibility, power and validity of visual analogue scales in assessment of appetite sensations in single test meal studies.

Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. as well as a subjective mm visual analogue scale VAS was used to score how subjects were feeling. The participants were asked the following questions: 1 How hungry are you feeling?

By this method, the results are presented as the mean and standard deviation of the score obtained for each day. Data are presented as the mean and standard deviation SD.

Statistical analyses were accomplished using the SAS software version 9. Linear regression models with mixed effects fixed and random effects were used to assess the variables between the two groups and within the groups paired samples. This model assumed that residues obtained by the differences between the predicted and observed values have normal distribution with mean value equal to zero as well as constant variance 17 Schall R.

Estimation in generalized linear models with random effects. When these requirements were not met, a logarithmic transformation was performed on the data.

The Pearson correlation coefficient was used for all the variables under study. The area under the curves of hunger and satiety were empirically calculated by employing the trapezoidal rule to obtain the difference between groups. This project was approved by the Research Ethics Committee of the University Hospital of Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo process n.

The mean ages in the experimental and control groups were 40±7 years and 39±6 years, respectively. In basal conditions, the groups presented similar values of body weight, BMI, fat mass, body fat percentage, resting energy expenditure, and HOMA-IR; similar acylated and total ghrelin, leptin, insulin, and glucose levels; and similar hunger and satiety sensations.

The fat-free mass was the exception Table 1. After three days of caloric restriction day 4 , both the EG and CG groups had significantly reduced body weight EG: 1.

Total ghrelin remained unaltered in the women that followed the conventional diet Table 2. FIGURE 1 Hunger scores during caloric restriction in obese women on experimental group high-fiber diet. For satiety, the area under the curve was significantly larger for the EG group on days 2 and 3 as compared with the CG group J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci.

Physiol Genomics. CiteSeerX Nature Communications. Bibcode : NatCo Aging Cell. Biochem J. PLOS ONE. Bibcode : PLoSO Archived from the original on 9 April Retrieved 9 April Journal of Obesity.

ISSN June Brazilian Journal of Psychiatry. Free Radic Biol Med. Mech Ageing Dev. Age Dordr. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. Biochim Biophys Acta.