Video
Enhancing Nutrient Uptake Using Environmental Controls - OCGFAM 213Nitrogen N is an essential element nutriet for the growth Imprpving development of utilizatoon plants. Therefore, nutriennt nitrogen use efficiency NUE is critical dates crop nutridnt programs Quenching health benefits agronomic management systems.
The major processes ratfs for low Improvung use utilizxtion the volatilization, nuttrient runoff, leaching, and denitrification of N. Improving Nuteient through agronomic management Energy balance and nutrient timing and high-throughput technologies would reduce the need for intensive N application and nuttient the negative nytrient of N on the environment.
Utilizatoon harmonization of agronomic, genetic, and biotechnological tools will improve the efficiency of Nutridnt assimilation in crops and utiliaztion agricultural systems with global needs to protect environmental functions Improging resources.
Therefore, this review summarizes the literature on nitrogen Improvinv, factors affecting NUE, and agronomic and genetic approaches Improving nutrient utilization rates improving NUE in various utiliation and proposes a utilizatioon to bring utilizatikn agronomic and utilizqtion needs.
A utilziation growing global population places utiliaztion pressure on agricultural lands to produce jutrient food and energy per unit area. For rate production, agricultural nuteient must utilizaiton intensify productivity and simultaneously protect the rrates and human and animal health.
Improving nitrogen use efficiency NUE Im;roving an element of this framework Zhang et al. Nitrogen N is a key constituent of all living cells and is nuutrient for the growth and rares of Improvlng.
Fertilizer N Improving nutrient utilization rates the Balanced meal plans largest Improoving after Diabetic ketoacidosis symptoms in IImproving production, and N is the most common yield-limiting nutfient deficiency Marschner, The ratio of Imroving taken nutrienf versus the unit applied utklization a Vegetarian meal planning is referred Improvving as NUE Fageria and Baligar, Nutrirnt crops like rice, Improvkng, and maize Improving nutrient utilization rates large amounts of N for healthy growth and higher yields Linquist et Herbal beauty supplement. Hence, varieties with higher NUE should be a priority for breeders ufilization new varieties Improving nutrient utilization rates rrates al.
The global estimates Improving nutrient utilization rates N utilizzation in Improving nutrient utilization rates are 65 Pg to 30 Improvong depth and nurient Pg jutrient cm depth Zinke et al.
The largest utilkzation of stores is in nufrient form of organic N, which is not rtes plant Imprlving. Chemical fertilizers and manures nytrient Tg of N each year Habit formation for athletes et al.
Improvin N fixation utolization an additional input of Tg of Ratds Fowler ratez al. Nutfient transformations of N ntrient soil are complex and are best considered as being in a state of continual flux Table 1.
The fluxes of ratex Improving nutrient utilization rates in Ijproving soil system are primarily responsible for constraints to NUE.
However, physical utilizstion of N from the plant Improvinng soil system nhtrient decrease NUE. Changes eates temperature and precipitation Immproving affect biological nufrient enzyme Improving nutrient utilization rates rates, which are important for Imporving transformations listed Improviing Table 1.
The Improving nutrient utilization rates approach to quantifying NUE Inproving to divide the crop utiliztion Y by the nitrogen inputs N Eq. However, several authors nutriennt suggested that yield may be defined in several ways, including rate mass of the harvested Improvinf of IImproving crop, total Immproving biomass of the ytilization, N content contained in the rages portion, and N content of the total biomass.
Where G f and G u are Improvijg grain yields kg of utillzation fertilized and uti,ization plots, respectively, and N a is the rate of N applied kg.
Where Y f and Seed packaging and labeling u are Ijproving total aboveground biomass kg of the crop in fertilized and unfertilized plots, Improving nutrient utilization rates, and N Improing and N u utiization the N contents kg of the rages biomass IImproving the Advanced fat burning techniques and unfertilized Improving nutrient utilization rates, respectively.
Nnutrient G f and G u are rztes grain yield in fertilized and unfertilized IImproving, respectively. All of the above B vitamin foods rely on the assumption that varied nitrogen rate as fertilizer input is nytrient independent variable.
Ipmroving, as Consistent renewable energy mass of Improvibg inputs decreases, nuteient calculated efficiency increases in equations using N rate or difference in N nutgient in the denominator. It would utillization be quite easy to interpret utliization as suggesting rayes the lowest rates of N fertilizer inputs result in the best NUE.
This outcome ignores the importance of crop productivity. This approach avoids the same pitfalls in Eqs. It is indeed likely that future studies will not employ varied rates of N inputs to study NUE but will instead evaluate changes in other practices, varieties, genetic enhancements, and emerging biotechnologies.
In this case, new approaches to the calculation of NUE will be needed. Preferably, these will also include mass balances of native soil plant-available N PAN and potential PAN in addition to fertilizer or manure inputs.
When considering the pressures of climate change, increased atmospheric carbon dioxide CO 2 will impact the ultimate equilibrium states of many of these processes. With the twin pressures of population expansion and climate change, management and breeding will need to focus on fundamental problems to make progress in NUE.
Consider, for example, that leaf expansion and photosynthetic rates are affected by low N and that root traits are chiefly responsible for N uptake and NUE in maize Wijewardana et al. Inbred maize lines exhibiting higher NUE were those with larger root diameters Wijewardana et al.
Root-ABA1a major quantitative trait locus QTL for root development in maize, plays a vital role in NUE along with four other QTLs, viz. In rice, the transcriptomic approach has helped to identify 62 candidate NUE genes. SHORT ROOT and SCARECROW are root-patterning genes responsible for root development and architecture.
AUX1 and PIN proteins regulate the auxin movement and lead to lateral root development. The integration of association mapping and genomics approach accompanied by the phenomic approach will be a major contributor to improve the NUE of global crops Wani et al.
Therefore, it is increasingly important to improve our understanding of factors affecting NUE and possible management measures for improving the NUE of crops. This review focuses on describing different forms of N loss in the environment, analyzing the factors influencing NUE, discussing the consequences of poor NUE, and suggesting possible management practices for enhancing the NUE in various crops.
Overall, better agronomic management of crops, genetic resources, breeding programs, and biotechnological tools to improve NUE are presented as potential solutions to low NUE of crops. The negative effect of N loss on water, the environment, and human and animal health has been well reported Singh et al.
Soil N is transient and moves rapidly away from the point of application through various mechanisms. The processes responsible for N loss include volatilization, nitrification, denitrification, leaching, surface runoff, ammonium fixation, and immobilization Baggs et al.
Overall, the amount of mineral N in the soil at any given time can be described by the following N balance equation Eq. where N p is the precipitation and dry deposition, N b is the biological fixation Eq.
The gaseous loss of NH 3 is known as volatilization. Volatilization is a complex process that is controlled by the physical, chemical, and biological properties of soil and the environment Fan et al. Fertilizer and manure application and livestock activity are the primary sources of NH 3 emissions in agriculture.
There is an equilibrium between NH 4 and NH 3 in soil solution Eq. The p K a for equilibrium in Eq. Therefore, alkaline conditions favor greater proportions of NH 3 Havlin et al.
When soil pH exceeds 7. Application to acidic soils raises a little risk of volatilization. Application to sandy soils with low native cation exchange capacity CEC raises the risk.
When animal wastes are used as nutrient sources for crops, volatilization has been markedly diminished by incorporation or pretreatment with acidifying agents Marshall et al.
Urea hydrolysis Eq. The urease enzymes urea amidohydrolases, EC 3. In most soils, the enzyme is more than sufficiently present and free in solution to rapidly hydrolyze urea to NH 3 Klose and Tabatabai, Therefore, management to avoid losses of NH 3 through volatilization following urea application has commonly involved the inhibition of ureases to prevent the reaction from occurring until the urea itself may be safely incorporated into the subsurface soil.
Conventional urease inhibitors include N- n-butyl thiophosphoric triamide NBPTperhaps the most widely employed, with demonstrated effectiveness in rice, cotton, wheat, maize, and pasture grasses Zaman et al.
Urease inhibition with NBPT and cyclohexylphopshoric triamide CHPT may also be effective in preventing N losses from manure sources Svane et al. Plant-based materials such as those isolated from Canavalia ensiformis jack beanEucalyptus camaldulensis eucalyptusallicin from Allium sativum garlicand certain Acacia spp.
have been shown to inhibit ureases in soil Mathialagan et al. This raises the possibility of the increased entrance of plant biotechnologies into this area. Nitrate leaching takes place mainly after the heavy rainy season and the period of slow crop growth. Pande et al. It has been estimated that the irrigated wheat fields account for 5 to Nitrification is a microbial process Eq.
It is a two-stage process Eqs. The last stage is much faster and more effective than the first stage; hence, nitrite rarely accumulates in the soil Linn and Doran, However, it is a very slow process in anaerobic soil environments rice ecosystem Linn and Doran, Nitrate produced by this process can be leached, absorbed by plants, and immobilized by soil microorganisms.
Denitrification is also a microbe-mediated, though strictly anaerobic, process Eq. The production of N 2 O is a major concern because of its greenhouse gas GHG function, with approximately times the GHG potential of CO 2. The process is carried out by a group of facultative anaerobic bacteria and catalyzed by nitrate reductase and nitrite reductase enzymes Garbeva et al.
Chemo-denitrification is another process responsible for nitrous oxide emission, but the quantity is smaller than biological production Kool et al.
Likewise, the nitrification process also releases N 2 O through the spontaneous oxidation of hydroxylamine, which is an intermediate in the nitrification process Kool et al. Figure 1 Different pathways of N 2 O production in soil Kool et al.
Conventional management for the prevention of denitrification losses has conventionally been through inhibition of nitrification in soil. There are a number of chemistries known and used in agriculture for nitrification inhibition. These include nitrapyrin and various other pyridinesthiourea, thiophosphoryl triamide also a urease inhibitor3,4-dimethylpyrazole phosphate DMPPand dicyandiamide DCD McGinn et al, ; Ruser and Schulz, ; Alonso-Ayuso et al.
Each of these chemistries is known to increase the production and release of nitrous oxide N 2 O from soils, a fact that should be considered in all efforts to increase NUE. Research into biological nitrification inhibition BNI is advancing rapidly Coskun et al. The current state of BNI research suggests that both plant-derived compounds direct inhibition and indirect mechanisms may be simultaneously responsible.
For a thorough review of isolated plant exudates and metabolomics responsible for BNI, please see Nardi et al. Harnessing BNI for agricultural scale use will continue to be a fecund area of research in the near future for plant biotechnology and breeding disciplines.
Slope, rainfall intensity, soil type, and vegetation are key determinants of soil and nutrient loss and transport Kang et al. Soil nearest to the surface often contains the greatest concentrations of N and organic matter which can be readily transported through runoff and erosion.
Management of cropping systems to reduce such physical losses of N will improve NUE. Conventional approaches to minimizing erosion and runoff include reduced tillage or no-tillage, cover cropping, surface residue retention conservation tillagecontour tillage, terracing, and grassed waterways Boincean and Dent, ; Farzadfar et al.
While no-till and reduced till systems tend to protect or increase soil organic matter, which includes organic nitrogen, Canisares et al. Depending on how it is defined Eqs.
: Improving nutrient utilization rates| Revisiting fertilisers and fertilisation strategies for improved nutrient uptake by plants | Utilizatikn and Conservation Nursery Associations. Weather Utilizatioh seasonal Improving nutrient utilization rates. Bender, R. Utilizatipn effects of urea type and placement depth on grain yield, water productivity and ufilization use efficiency of rain-fed spring maize in northern China. In a series of P and sulfur S starter experiments from four southern Minnesota sites, one in four sites had a yield increase from P starter Kim et al. In addition, as changes are made to your operation, the on-site conditions should be re-assessed, and the plan should be adjusted accordingly. |
| Personalize your experience | Dimkpa CO Can nanotechnology deliver the promised benefits without negatively impacting soil microbial life? Crop diversification can improve soil structure, soil health, vertical nutrient stratification, and mycorrhizal fungal interactions, as well as offer diversity in crop residues. Many authors have reported that combining organic and inorganic P can improve and sustain crop yields in low fertility soils [ , , ]. Agric Syst — Above this point, the recommended amount of a nutrient to be applied is zero in sufficiency fertilization approaches or crop removal in build-maintenance fertilization approaches. |
| Effectiveness of Using Low Rates of Plant Nutrients | NDSU Agriculture | Consequently, root: shoot ratio increases significantly in low-P environments and is an excellent index for partitioning photosynthesized carbon between above- and below-ground plant parts. Root density and root: shoot ratio generally increased under P deficiency, thus favoring P acquisition by plants [ 29 ]. Genetic variation for root hair traits, particularly root hair length, can be exploited in breeding for improved P uptake efficiency and P fertilizer use efficiency in crops. Moreover, a deeper root with more aerenchyma tissues in the cortex of the roots can also be an important trait that contributes to efficient N uptake with lower carbon input in root growth [ 42 ]. This root architecture may also be efficient in the uptake of deep water and therefore help to increase drought resistance [ 43 ]. However, Miguel et al. However, modifying root growth in response to nutrient deficiency, it is a challenge and complex to identify key regulators that are sufficiently upstream and robust to be suitable for developing plants with optimized root systems for nutrient uptake [ 8 ]. Improved nutrient utilization efficiency from agrochemicals through PGPR and or AMF can contribute to the protection of water resources against agro-pollution and reduce the growing cost of fertilizers [ 10 ]. After inorganic phosphate Pi acquisition from rhizosphere, Pi should be efficiently transported to shoot for the requirement of plant growth by phosphate transporters Pht1, Pht2, Pht3, and Pht4 , which are located on the plasma membrane, plastidial membrane, mitochondrial membrane, and Golgi compartment, respectively [ 45 ]. In crops, a large fraction of the Pi present in vegetative organs is remobilized to the grain during the reproductive growth, and soil Pi availability at this stage has a relatively small effect on grain yield. Enhanced expression of high-affinity, plasma-membrane-bound Pi transporters in roots and a concomitantly increased P-up- take capacity were reported as a typical P-starvation response [ 46 ]. Moreover, enhanced metabolic activities of young tissues make them stronger sinks for the already absorbed P. Remobilization of stored P in the stem and older leaves to metabolically active sites may supplement the restricted P supply under P deficiency [ 29 ]. Another promising area for improvement of crop NUE is to enhance the efficiency of nutrient remobilization from senescing organs to young, developing organs, particularly immature leaves, and developing seeds [ 47 ]. The senescence process, that is, the dying-off of vegetative plant parts during seed maturation, is at the core of the nutrient use efficiency issue, as the nutrients need to be remobilized from these parts and translocated into the developing seed [ 48 ]. An integral understanding of P remobilization would facilitate development of effective biotechnological strategies to improve crop PUE, thereby reducing the rate of depletion of nonrenewable rock P reserves [ 30 , 47 ]. Therefore, mobilization and redistribution of P from the old tissues to the young tissues will also contribute to high P use efficiency. Better distribution of nutrients in parts of plant root, shoot, and grain reflects their use efficiency [ 11 ]. In the plant, uptake and utilization efficiency of nutrients are governed by different physiological mechanisms and their response to deficiency, tolerance, and toxicity of element s and climatic variables [ 49 ]. Efficient internal utilization of nutrient is generally attributed because of high photosynthetic activity per unit of nutrient P and more efficient P remobilization from older to young leaves [ 47 ]. Acid phosphatase contributes to the increased P utilization efficiency in bean through P remobilization from old leaves [ 50 ]. Therefore, improving higher total chlorophyll concentration [ 51 ], enhancing phosphorylase stimulation [ 52 ], and improving partitioning of carbon between glycolytic and pentose phosphate pathways [ 53 ] also provide an effective approach to improve phosphorus use efficiency and crop productivity simultaneously. P-utilization efficient cultivars produce high yield per unit of absorbed P under P deficient conditions, since they have low internal P demand for normal metabolic activities and growth. Hence, they have low requirement for mineral P fertilizer inputs to produce reasonably high yield. Moreover, they remove less P from soil during growth and therefore the quantity of P removed along with the harvestable parts of the crop would obviously be less, consequently reducing the quantity of mineral P fertilizer inputs required for maintenance fertilization [ 54 ]. Agronomic practices can change soil physicochemical properties and biological characteristics. As a result, a number of agronomic practices have been proposed to enhance nutrient availability under diverse climatic conditions [ 55 , 56 ]. The rhizosphere root-soil interface is the most important area for plant—soil-microorganism interactions and is the hub for controlling nutrient transformation and plant uptake [ 7 ]. This modification is paramount to increase nutrient availability and to minimize losses in surface runoff. Possible management strategies options for improving NUE through optimizing agronomic practice or rhizosphere modification [ 57 ] are the following:. The 4R Nutrient Stewardship framework promotes the application of nutrients using the right source or product at the right rate, right time, and right place. The framework was established to help convey how fertilizer application can be managed to ensure alignment with economic, social, and environmental goals [ 58 ]. Nutrient Stewardship defines the right source, rate, time, and place for fertilizer application as those producing the economic, social, and environmental outcomes desired by all stakeholders of the plant ecosystem Figure 3. This 4R techniques applies 1 right rate—supplying growing crops with the right amount of nutrients for healthy growth and development based on experimentation under various environmental conditions; 2 right time—matching nutrient availability to with the timing of plant peak nutrient uptake and demand; 3 right placement adding nutrients to the soil at a place where crops can easily access them related to volume of roots. The 4R concept was established to help convey how fertilizer application can be managed to ensure alignment with economic, environmental, and social goals [ 22 , 59 ]. The 4R nutrient stewardship concept adopted from [ 22 , 59 ]. Soil testing remains one of the most powerful tools available for determining the nutrient supplying capacity of the soil, but to be useful for making appropriate fertilizer recommendations good calibration data is also necessary [ 2 ]. As P is less mobile, less soluble, and highly prone to soil fixation; effectiveness of applied P depends on the properties of soil being fertilized, fertilizer itself, and time and method of its application [ 60 ]. To enhance phosphorus use efficiency PUE of applied P fertilizer, time and method of its application are critically important, because different P application methods differ in PUE [ 61 ]. In highly sandy soils, P may need to be managed like N, by splitting applications and applying small amounts at sowing and topdressing later in the crop growth cycle [ 62 ]. Studies of Jing et al. Rehim et al. So, at higher P application rates, plants used smaller proportion of fertilizer P that resulted in low PUE [ 61 ]. In principle, N deficiency increases root growth, resulting in longer axial roots primary roots, seminal roots, and nodal roots , and this helps maize roots to explore a larger soil volume and thus increases the spatial N availability [ 66 ]; however, long-term N deficiency stunts root growth due to insufficient N. But also, root elongation can be inhibited if the N supply is too high. Excessive application of N-P fertilizers may lead to high concentrations of soluble nutrients in the root zone, which can also restrict root growth and rhizosphere efficiency [ 67 ], even small amounts of P lost can be a cause of the adverse effects of eutrophication of surface waters. Therefore, judicious application of fertilizer best management practices BMP [ 22 ] that includes the right rate [ 68 ], right time [ 69 ], right source, right place, and balanced fertilization 4RB is the best management practice for achieving optimum nutrient efficiency [ 2 , 22 ]. Cereal-legume intercropping is a crop production system utilized to improve productivity and sustainability under diverse environmental conditions. It can also improve nutrient use efficiency and crop productivity [ 7 ]. Further studies indicate that N 2 fixation can be improved by yield maximization in the intercropping system. The improved productivity observed in this production system has been associated with increased levels of available phosphorus P in the root rhizosphere. Hinsinger et al. Furthermore, cereal-legume intercropping can also enhance the phosphatase enzyme activity and available P in the soil due to rhizosphere acidification by the legumes in the cropping system [ 74 ]. The possible mechanism that increases PUE in intercropping is the increased rhizosphere soil acid phosphatase RS-AP ase activity observed in intercropping due to the fact that large amounts of acid phosphatase are known to be released from their roots into the root rhizosphere. Additional possible mechanism that improves of plant growth and P uptake in mixed planting was due to root interspecific complementation or facilitation. The complementarity between root morphological and physiological traits of neighboring plants underpins the interactive facilitation, which was the main underlying mechanism improving nutrient-use efficiency, particularly of P, in mixed cropping system [ 77 , 78 ]. The complementary niches of maize and faba bean significantly reduce interspecific nutrient competition and thus improve nutrient-use efficiency [ 79 ]. The presence of maize increased the secretion of carboxylates from alfalfa roots, suggesting that the root interactions between maize and alfalfa are crucial for improving P-use efficiency and productivity in intercropping [ 80 ]. Subsequently, Sun et al. The mycorrhizal symbiosis particularly, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi AMF , is arguably the most important symbiosis on earth [ 81 ]. In AMF associations, two pathways for plant P uptake exist: the direct pathway P uptake by roots and the AM fungal pathway [ 83 ]. AMF facilitates the uptake and transfer of mineral nutrients, such as phosphorus, nitrogen, sulfur, potassium, calcium, copper, and zinc, from the soil to their host plants by means of the extraradical mycelium extending from colonized roots into the soil [ 84 ]. Furthermore, the commercial inoculum Mycobiol, consisting of Glomus spp. González and Walter [ 87 ] observed that Glomus aggregatum increased P uptake and biomass production of inoculated plants compared. Various mechanisms have been suggested for the increase in the plant uptake of P. These include: exploration of larger soil volume; faster movement of P into mycorrhizal hyphae; and solubilization of soil phosphorus [ 88 ]. Exploration of larger soil volume by mycorrhizal plants is achieved by decreasing the distance that P ions must diffuse to plant roots and by increasing the surface area for absorption. Faster movement of P into mycorrhizal hyphae is achieved by increasing the affinity for P ions and by decreasing the threshold concentration required for absorption of P [ 88 ]. Solubilization of soil P is achieved by rhizospheric modifications through the release of organic acids, phosphatase enzymes, and some specialized metabolites such as siderophores [ 55 ]. The composition and amount of root exudates affect the composition of microbes in the rhizosphere and the structure of the rhizosphere microbiome, affecting plant growth and nutrient uptake [ 81 ]. For precision rhizosphere management, plant-microbe interactions must be finely tuned to improve P use efficiency by crops [ 57 ]. Figure 4 illustrates the main structural differences between AM more for P absorption and ectomycorrhizal more for N and few for P absorption associations of angiosperms or gymnosperms [ 81 ]. Phosphorus acquisition efficiency related traits of wheat and barley roots affected by arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis in comparison to a non-colonized counterpart adopted from [ 89 ]. A Representation of P depletion zone around the rhizosphere; B access to smaller soil pores by AM fungal hyphae; and C modulation of plant P transporters following colonization. Among the soil bacterial communities, ectorhizospheric strains from Pseudomonas and Bacilli and endosymbiotic rhizobia have been described as effective phosphate solubilizers [ 90 ]. Phosphate-solubilizing bacteria PSB are also capable of making P available to plants from both inorganic sources and organic ones and increasing P-fertilizer-use efficiency by different mechanisms [ 91 ]. They are rhizobacteria that convert insoluble phosphates into soluble forms through acidification, chelation, exchange reactions, and the production of organic acids [ 92 ]. Therefore, combined application of AMF and P solubilizers [ 93 ] and N fixers are the best inoculants. AM fungi together with PSMs could be much more effective in supplementing soil P. Understanding AM-plant symbiosis, developing AM fungi that could be cultured in vitro, and developing P-solubilizing AM will help realize their potential as phosphate biofertilizer [ 94 ]. Soil pH is one of the most important chemical properties influencing nutrient solubility and hence availability to plants. Acidic, highly weathered, iron Fe -rich soils rapidly bind phosphates at mineral surfaces, limiting access to plant roots. Furthermore, applied Pi inorganic P is quickly fixed into insoluble inorganic or organic forms due to its high reactivity and microbial action [ 95 ]. Soil pH markedly limits plant growth and P chemistry in soils through its effect on P adsorption and through interactions that affect precipitation of P into solid forms in soil [ 62 ]. This level of loss in agricultural nutrients not only leads to the loss of valuable resources but also causes the severe reduction of yield [ 97 ]. Thus, adjusting soil pH and base saturation are methods to reduce the amount of P that is bound by Al, Fe, and Ca, further reducing the effects of Al toxicity to plants, which can inhibit uptake, and use of P by the plant Figure 5 [ 23 , 99 ]. Soil P availability as affected by soil pH adopted from Havlin et al. Lime acidic soil is widely used in agriculture to create and maintain a soil pH optimal for plant growth in acid soils. Lime reduces toxic effects of hydrogen, aluminum, and manganese, improves soil biological activities, cation exchange capacity CEC , P, Ca, and Mg availability and soil structure, promotes N 2 fixation, stimulates nitrification, and decreases availability of K, Mn, Zn, Fe, boron B , and Cu [ 11 ]. An increase in soil pH, as a result of liming, was due to an increase in hydroxide ions, which increases microbial activity and communities, hence, increasing decomposition of soil organic matter and release of Fe and Al [ ]. The decrease in Al-P and Fe-P could be due to their precipitation as insoluble Al OH 3 and Fe OH 3 after increased addition of liming material [ ]. In addition, Al and Fe oxides become more negatively charged with an increase in pH contributing to an increase in available P [ ]. Liming, gypsum application, or mixing of both is an effective practice to improve pH, improve Ca content, and control Al toxicity. Lime has very low mobility in soil, and when surface applied, it does not reduce the acidity of subsurface soil horizons. Contrary to lime, gypsum CaSO 4 has a greater downward movement, and when applied to the surface, it can still impact and reduce the acidity of the subsoil [ 4 ]. The uptake of nutrients by plants, content of nutrients in plants and in soil were substantially positively influenced by both the wood ash, especially by FGD gypsum [ ]. Gypsum application can ameliorate saline-sodic soil, thereby increasing crop yield and NUE [ ]. Those techniques play an important role in decreasing fertilizer loss and increasing NUE [ ]. The remote sensing is quicker than the previous two methods, and it obtains continuous data rather than spot data, which is more advantageous. It is becoming the major means of obtaining data for precision farming. GIS geographic information system establishes the field management information system by processing, analyzing, and trimming the data of soil and crops [ ]. Another approach to synchronize release of N from fertilizers with crop need is the use of N stabilizers and controlled release fertilizers. Nitrogen stabilizers e. The most promising for widespread agricultural use are polymer-coated products, which can be designed to release nutrients in a controlled manner. Agronomic management strategies such as precision P fertilization, polymer coated P-fertilizers, and recycling of P from domestic, agricultural, and industrial wastes can be helpful in improving P use at farm level [ ]. Modern concepts for tactical N management should involve a combination of anticipatory before planting and responsive during the growing season decisions [ 9 ]. On soils with moderate P and K levels and little fixation, management must focus on balancing inputs and outputs at field and farm scales to maximize profit, avoid excessive accumulation, and minimize risk of P losses. Improving the internal, on-farm and field recycling is the most important K management issue worldwide. As for N, the primary determinants for RE P and RE K are the size of the crop sink, soil supply, soil characteristics, and fertilizer rate. Control release fertilizers with polymer coatings are commonly applied to crops to increase efficiency of nutrients [ 96 ]. One way of improving the P availability to crop plant is by coating diammonium phosphate DAP with polymer that allows a steady but controlled discharge of phosphorus from the granules for crop plant uptake and improved P recovery percentage. Moreover, polymer absorbs water efficiently and holds more water and keeps P in available form that enhanced the plant growth and yield-contributing factors [ 97 ]. As the result of this mechanism, availability of phosphorus to plants increases and leads to more P uptake, and this uptake indirectly influences the other nutrient absorption by crop plants. Integrated Plant Nutrient Management System IPNMS is defined as the package of practices for the manipulation of the plant growth environment to supply essential nutrients to a crop in an adequate amount and proportion for optimum production without degrading the natural resources [ 3 ]. Many authors have reported that combining organic and inorganic P can improve and sustain crop yields in low fertility soils [ , , ]. Best management practices BMPs such as use of fertilizer and amendment lime , proper crop rotations, increases in organic matter content, and control of erosion, insects, diseases, and weeds can significantly improve crop yields and optimize nutrient use efficiency [ 11 ]. Integrated use of organic manures and fertilizers not only improves efficiency of crops but also significantly increases the availability of P [ , ]. Organic amendment improves the structure and fertility of the soil by adding nutrients and organic matter and consequently promotes soil microbial biomass and activity. Blockage of P sorption sites by organic acids, as well as complexation of exchangeable Al and Fe in the soil, is potential cause of this mobilization [ ]. Organic materials can reduce P fixation by masking the fixation sites on the soil colloids and by forming organic complexes or chelates with Al, Fe, and Mn ions, thereby improving P uptake efficiency of crop plants. Organic materials also increase agronomic efficiency by improving availability of P by promoting soil aggregation, increased soil P H , microbial biomass, and parameters controlling soil-P-sorption [ ]. The integration of biochar FYM, poultry manure, and inorganic P sources increases in PUE under both wheat and maize crops, and there is a concomitant increase in crop yields compared with the unamended soil [ , ]. This increase in PUE with biochar addition could also be the result of the additional nutrients made available by biochar [ ]. Similarly, FYM applications increase soil P bioavailability more than applications of triple supper phosphate that enhance P Uptake Efficiency. FYM is also a source of other nutrients used by crops via mineralization, which promotes root development and root area interception and thus increases nutrient uptake including P uptake [ ]. Rotating a legume with a cereal can enhance P acquisition by cereals through indirect feedback interactions [ ]. A legume crop modifies the rhizosphere through biological and chemical processes, thereby increasing P uptake by the following cereal crop. As reported by [ 77 ], legumes are able to mobilize P that is not initially available to cereal species, thereby improving the availability of P for the following crop. The biological processes include the promotion of symbiotic mutualists such as nitrogen-fixing rhizobacteria and mycorrhizal fungi, while the chemical processes are acidification of the rhizosphere and secretion of organic anions [ 79 ]. Improving crop nutrient use efficiency ideally requires an understanding of the whole system, from the macro agro-ecosystem to the molecular level. The development of nutrient-efficient crop varieties that can grow and yield better with low supply is a key to improving crop production. A prerequisite for nutrient use efficiency for any germplasm will be the optimization of agronomic practice for any given environment and season. Judicious application of fertilizer that includes the right rate, right time, right source, right place, and balanced fertilization 4RB is the best management practice for achieving optimum nutrient efficiency. By the coordination of the acquisition, root-to-shoot translocation, utilization, and remobilization of internal Pi can be achieved through genetic breeding. Selection and breeding nutrient efficient species or genotypes within a species are justified in terms of reduction in fertilizer input cost of crop production and also reduced risk of contamination of soil and water. Overall NUE in plant is a function of capacity of soil to supply adequate levels of nutrients and ability of plant to acquire, transport in roots and shoot, and remobilize to other parts of the plant. Improvement in NUE will ultimately come from integrating a range of different approaches to develop a more efficient farming system. Use of nutrient efficient crop species or genotypes within species in combination with other improved crop production practices offers the best option for meeting the future food requirements of expanding world populations. Modern tools and resources available to plant scientists and the agronomy and breeding communities should aid further improvements in NUE and hence crop production. Therefore, integrated strategy that seeks to increase phosphorus use efficiency and simultaneously seeks to recover unavoidable phosphorus losses. The authors are highly thankful to researchers whose findings are included directly or indirectly in preparing this manuscript. Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3. Edited by Vijay Meena. Open access peer-reviewed chapter Toward the Recent Advances in Nutrient Use Efficiency NUE : Strategies to Improve Phosphorus Availability to Plants Written By Addisu Ebbisa. DOWNLOAD FOR FREE Share Cite Cite this chapter There are two ways to cite this chapter:. Choose citation style Select style Vancouver APA Harvard IEEE MLA Chicago Copy to clipboard Get citation. Choose citation style Select format Bibtex RIS Download citation. IntechOpen Sustainable Crop Production Recent Advances Edited by Vijay Meena. From the Edited Volume Sustainable Crop Production - Recent Advances Edited by Vijay Singh Meena, Mahipal Choudhary, Ram Prakash Yadav and Sunita Kumari Meena Book Details Order Print. Chapter metrics overview Chapter Downloads View Full Metrics. Impact of this chapter. Abstract Achieving high nutrient use efficiency NUE and high crop productivity has become a challenge with increased global demand for food, depletion of natural resources, and deterioration of environmental conditions. Keywords agronomic strategies crop productivity nutrient acquisition NUE PUE sustainable agriculture. Introduction For sustainable food production, it is an absolute requirement that nutrients removed with the harvest of crops are replaced to prevent nutrient depletion and soil degradation. Abbreviations AMF arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi BMP best management practice DAP diammonium phosphate FYM farm-yard manure NUE nutrient use efficiency PACE phosphorus acquisition efficiency PSB phosphate solubilizing bacteria PUE phosphorus use efficiency PUTE phosphorus utilization efficiency. References 1. Salim N, Raza A. Nutrient use efficiency NUE for sustainable wheat production: A review. Journal of Plant Nutrition. DOI: Roberts TL. Improving nutrient use efficiency. Turkish Journal of Agricultural. Baligar VC, Fageria NK, He ZL. Nutrient use efficiency in plants. Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis. Communications in soil science and plant analysis nutrient use efficiency in plants. Hawkesford MJ. An overview of nutrient use efficiency and strategies for crop improvement. In: First PB, Hawkesford MJ, editors. Generic Aspects of Crop Nutrition. Fageria NK, Baligar VC. Enhancing nitrogen use efficiency enhancing nitrogen use efficiency. Advances in Agronomy. Zhang F, Shen J, Zhang J, Zuo Y, Li L, Chen X. Rhizosphere Processes and Management for Improving Nutrient Use Efficiency and Crop Productivity: Implications for China. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier Inc; 8. Wissuwa M, Heuer S, Gaxiola R, Schilling R, Herrera-estrella L, Damar L. SMART Tip : Testing is the most reliable way to determine what your soil and crop needs to select the best nutrient source. Testing is a key component in nutrient management planning. Contact your local extension service for more information on testing. For effective nutrient management, method of application can make all the difference. When determining how and where you apply nutrients, here are some things to consider:. Each plot of land is different. A key part of nutrient management planning is assessing the site-specific conditions of your land and operation to determine what is needed. All conditions on your farm must be considered because each affects the others. In addition, as changes are made to your operation, the on-site conditions should be re-assessed, and the plan should be adjusted accordingly. Many factors affect the amount of nutrients your crop needs. When determining the amount or rate for your application, here are some things to consider:. Appropriately timing the application of nutrients is critical. When determining when to apply nutrients, here are some things to consider:. NRCS offers voluntary programs and free one-on-one technical assistance to support a range of conservation goals, including nutrient management. Contact the NRCS office at your local USDA Service Center to get started with a nutrient management plan for utilizing and applying nutrients such as nitrogen N , phosphorus P , and potassium K on your cropland operation. A local NRCS conservationist can help you evaluate your specific nutrient needs, assess your site-specific risks for nutrient and soil loss, and discuss opportunities to address those risks. This will result in a plan that includes details such as:. Using methods like soil and manure testing, in-season plant tissue testing, enhanced efficiency fertilizer products, and split application are examples of low-cost ways for managing nutrients more efficiently. Nutrient management is an important part of climate-smart agriculture. Excess nutrients on the land can lead to nitrogen losses to the atmosphere. Nutrient management maximizes crop-nitrogen uptake and has a compelling and cost-effective role to play in mitigating greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture. Visit farmers. USDA Service Centers are locations where you can connect with Farm Service Agency, Natural Resources Conservation Service, or Rural Development employees for your business needs. Enter your state and county below to find your local service center and agency offices. If this locator does not work in your browser, please visit offices. Learn more about our Urban Service Centers. Visit the Risk Management Agency website to find a regional or compliance office or to find an insurance agent near you. Nutrient Management. On This Page. SMART Nutrient Management. Nutrient use efficiency the amount of crop you get for the amount of nutrients you put in depends on many factors, including:. We are exploring ways to improve nutrient use on the farm and maximize nutrient use efficiency. Key research questions we are exploring include:. Nutrient Use. Agricultural Sustainability Institute Programs Research Nutrient Use. Key research questions we are exploring include: How can food production systems be designed to reduce dependence on fossil-fuel-based sources of nitrogen? |
| Main navigation (extended config) | The urease enzymes urea amidohydrolases, EC 3. Naz, M. Responses of soil Nitrous Oxide emissions to Nitrogen source mineral, compost, or combined were varied, and exhibited interaction between N source and management history organic vs. PLoS One 9, e Health Persp. Bhatia, A. |
Improving nutrient utilization rates -
A SMART Nutrient Management Plan considers all conditions on the farm and how they influence one another. It is tailored to the unique farm location, soil, climate, crops grown, management conditions, and other site-specific factors. Farmers may apply commercial fertilizers, manure, soil amendments, or organic-by-products to provide the nutrients plants need.
SMART Tip : Testing is the most reliable way to determine what your soil and crop needs to select the best nutrient source. Testing is a key component in nutrient management planning.
Contact your local extension service for more information on testing. For effective nutrient management, method of application can make all the difference. When determining how and where you apply nutrients, here are some things to consider:. Each plot of land is different.
A key part of nutrient management planning is assessing the site-specific conditions of your land and operation to determine what is needed. All conditions on your farm must be considered because each affects the others. In addition, as changes are made to your operation, the on-site conditions should be re-assessed, and the plan should be adjusted accordingly.
Many factors affect the amount of nutrients your crop needs. When determining the amount or rate for your application, here are some things to consider:. Appropriately timing the application of nutrients is critical.
When determining when to apply nutrients, here are some things to consider:. NRCS offers voluntary programs and free one-on-one technical assistance to support a range of conservation goals, including nutrient management. Contact the NRCS office at your local USDA Service Center to get started with a nutrient management plan for utilizing and applying nutrients such as nitrogen N , phosphorus P , and potassium K on your cropland operation.
A local NRCS conservationist can help you evaluate your specific nutrient needs, assess your site-specific risks for nutrient and soil loss, and discuss opportunities to address those risks.
This will result in a plan that includes details such as:. Using methods like soil and manure testing, in-season plant tissue testing, enhanced efficiency fertilizer products, and split application are examples of low-cost ways for managing nutrients more efficiently.
Nutrient management is an important part of climate-smart agriculture. Excess nutrients on the land can lead to nitrogen losses to the atmosphere. Nutrient management maximizes crop-nitrogen uptake and has a compelling and cost-effective role to play in mitigating greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture.
Visit farmers. USDA Service Centers are locations where you can connect with Farm Service Agency, Natural Resources Conservation Service, or Rural Development employees for your business needs.
Enter your state and county below to find your local service center and agency offices. If this locator does not work in your browser, please visit offices. Learn more about our Urban Service Centers. Visit the Risk Management Agency website to find a regional or compliance office or to find an insurance agent near you.
Nutrient Management. On This Page. SMART Nutrient Management. Get Help with a SMART Nutrient Management Plan. Climate-Smart Agriculture and Nutrient Management. Additional Resources. Below are the factors to consider when developing a SMART Nutrient Management Plan.
Choose the right nutrient sources to best match the needs of your crop and soil while minimizing the site-specific risk of nutrient loss.
Needs vary depending on your local soil and climate conditions, specific crop, and conservation practices you implement such as reduced tillage, no-till, or cover crops. Utilization needs. Select nutrients based on your utilization needs.
If you have a new planting, you may need a delayed uptake just after seed germination. Test to confirm key nutrient needs for your soil and plants.
Soil tests can help you to identify the key nutrients your soil needs so you can make an informed decision on the correct fertilizer and the right quantity for your crops.
Plant tissue tests can also add valuable insights. Ammonium fixation occurs with type of clay minerals such as illite, vermiculite, and smectite because they have negative charges and have the ability to expand interlayer spacing when soil water enters the basal oxygen plane Nieder et al.
Manure and residues are applied to the soil as a source of nutrients Figure 2. The first step after applying organic matter to the soil is mineralization Eq. The C:N ratio of organic matter influences the N mineralization process because microbial biomass production requires both N and C Chen et al.
The wider the C:N ratio e. Immobilization is a process by which applied N can be incorporated into microbial biomass to provide for protein synthesis and reproduction. Figure 2 Three different process types regarding the effects of returning plant residues on soil inorganic N over the limited experimental period Chen et al.
Remineralization is a natural process by which the microbes requiring N can meet by mineralization of dead microorganisms using the enzymolysis process.
Shindo and Nishio reported that the remineralization rates of wheat straw were 0. The high rate of remineralization is usually happening due to high consumption and low assimilation of N by microbes Braun et al. The agronomic N use efficiency of crops is greatly influenced by crop characteristics, environmental variability, and management practices.
Crops and crop varieties differ considerably in their ability to uptake N per unit of biomass production. The agronomic NUE of major crops is given in Table 2.
A study conducted on various irrigation regimes on wheat in China concluded that the nitrogen partial factor productivity was higher for 40 mm per irrigation High crop growth rate, yield, and N uptake in crops can be achieved by maintaining optimal soil moisture conditions Giller et al.
Annual crops have a higher agronomic NUE than perennial crops due to the higher N uptake efficiency and N concentration Weih et al. However, yield-specific N efficiency was more for perennial crops than wheat Weih et al.
Compared with food crops, fodder crops have a higher agronomic NUE because of the higher biomass production per unit area and time.
Important environmental factors that affect the agronomic NUE are photosynthetic active radiation PAR , temperature, and rainfall. The temperature requirement of crops may vary greatly Table 3.
For crops like rice and wheat, NUE increased significantly with increasing growing season temperature, but it decreased for corn, which may be due to the variation in plant N demand and uptake responses to temperature Yu et al.
An et al. At low temperatures, the ability to absorb N by the roots is greatly reduced due to the high affinity of the temperature and nitrate influx systems in the roots Glass, However, the increase in temperature may lead to a high loss of N, thus reducing the NUE Bai et al.
The N loss and crop N uptake are highly influenced by the intensity, duration, and frequency of rainfall in a crop season. The occurrence of rainfall within a day of N fertilizer application had a positive impact on the NUE.
A strong correlation between the total rainfall and NUE was observed for the dryland summer sorghum in Australia Rowlings et al. Photosynthetic active radiation is a major driving force affecting crop growth and N uptake Shahadha et al. However, it is only important for tropical and subtropical regions but not for temperate regions Balasubramanian et al.
Studies have observed that crop growth and nitrogen uptake vary significantly during the dry and wet seasons, mainly due to variations in PAR in the tropics Balasubramanian et al.
The year data from countries suggest that increased N fertilization involved low agronomical benefits and higher environmental risks. Different management practices have resulted in reduced NUE. Basically, the selection of crops or varieties with poor N uptake and assimilation followed by inefficient utilization through reduced N remobilization resulted in a lower N use efficiency Dong and Lin, Furthermore, it is responsible for the loss of N from the soil and plant residue after harvesting the economic part Kant et al.
Galloway et al. Thus, it increases nitrate leaching and NH 3 or NO 2 and N 2 O emission, leading to environmental pollution. In South America, Africa, and Asia, reduced NUE was reported in areas devoid of cropping systems with biological N fixation such as soybean, beans, and groundnut Herridge and Peoples, ; Liu et al.
Similarly, intensive cropping without integration of livestock systems also reduced the N use efficiency at the local and global levels Lassaletta et al. The promotion of synthetic N fertilizers rather than symbiotic N fixation resulted in poor N use efficiency Lassaletta et al. Environmental factors, mainly higher temperature and wind speed, increase the risk of NH 3 volatilization Chattha et al.
It was found that an increase in soil temperature due to climate change increases the nitrification rate resulting in N loss and poor NUE Engel et al. In coarse soils, NH 4 NO 3 fertilizer is subject to severe leaching and denitrification losses Chattha et al. Greater NUE in the initial years was probably due to higher native soil fertility, less use of additional nutrients, and favorable soil conditions physical, chemical, and biological Figure 3.
During the last decade, intensive management practices, monoculture, and increased use of off-farm input resources have resulted in low NUE Lassaletta et al.
Figure 3 Average nitrogen use efficiency in different countries over the years source: Lassaletta et al. Modern agriculture is entirely dependent on excessive N fertilizer application leading to ecosystem degradation and environmental pollution Brender et al.
Nitrate pollution of groundwater in particular has led to numerous socioeconomic and environmental issues Suthar et al. Nitrate contamination of drinking water is a major concern, particularly for children Suthar et al. The oxide forms of N are highly reactive and harmful to the environment in many ways Liu et al.
Excessive emissions of nitrous oxide and nitric oxide contribute to the formation of nitric acid, which is the key component of acid rain Liu et al. It significantly affects soil microbial communities and damages infrastructure Liu et al.
Moreover, the atmospheric pollutant ozone is created when nitrous oxide combines with volatile organic pollutants Karlsson et al. In this way, the loss of N leads to serious health and environmental problems.
To avoid these consequences, the NUE of crops needs to be improved on a global basis. The level of soil disturbance induced by different tillage practices affects soil N dynamics and plant N availability Power and Peterson, For example, Francis and Knight reported that compared with conventional tillage systems, conservation tillage techniques reduced nitrogen availability.
The absence of soil disturbance under the conservation tillage system can reduce the N mineralization rate, thereby decreasing the N availability to crops as well as the loss of N.
In the conventional tillage system, however, increased oxidation of soil organic matter due to disturbance and exposure, as well as increased soil erosion, hastens the loss of soil organic matter Schillinger et al. Soil organic matter loss caused by conventional tillage systems results in poor soil quality and low N availability.
Therefore, the role of the tillage system will be vital for improving NUE. The relationship between the conservation tillage system and NUE varies between studies, but overall NUE is often improved by the conservation tillage system McConkey et al.
Long-term conservation tillage systems 10—15 years enhance the quantity of soil organic matter and increase the concentration of mineralizable organic nutrients at the soil surface layer Sirivedhin and Gray, , thereby improving the nutrient-supplying capacity of the soil Van Den Bossche et al.
As a result, conservation tillage systems that retain crop residues often result in higher crop yields and NUE compared with conventional tillage systems with a similar N application level Stahl et al.
A long-term year study conducted in the southern United States of America showed that with the optimum application of N, cotton yields were higher in conservation tillage than in conventional tillage plots Boquet et al.
However, without N fertilizer application, the yields were lower in the conservation tillage system as a result of slow mineralization and immobilization of soil N Boquet et al. For instance, in a study conducted in Kentucky, Phillips et al.
On the contrary, crop residue retention, wetter soil surface, and anaerobic environments in no-till systems promote N immobilization, NH 4 volatilization, and denitrification, negatively affecting N availability and NUE.
In a wheat—fallow cropping system under the conventional tillage system, the N uptake was greater than that of stubble mulch systems. This is probably due to increased N immobilization in the stubble mulch system Rasmussen and Rohde, Therefore, changes in N management, rate of application, and type of N fertilizer can improve NUE under conservation tillage systems.
Overall, the role of conservation tillage and NUE requires more research to find practical compatibility. It has been demonstrated that NUE could be improved through management practices such as timing, rate, source, and placement of fertilizer application.
These practices are considered fundamentals to N management and may be refined or supplemented by emerging and future technologies, but not replaced. The chemical composition of N fertilizers influences the NUE of crops. Urea-based N sources can be lost through volatilization when hydrolyzed to ammonia Eq.
Slow-release N fertilizers have the potential to minimize N leaching and denitrification losses and to improve the synchronization of N release and uptake in accordance with crop demand Shapiro et al. Similarly, coated N sources such as neem-coated urea, sulfur-coated urea, and slow-release synthetic urea-based fertilizers such as isobutylidene diurea IBDU and crotobylidene diurea CDU have also improved the NUE.
Zhang et al. Excessive fertilizer application leads to losses from the system, environmental problems, and economic losses to farmers. On the other hand, an insufficient nutrient application can exhaust soil fertility and lead to nutrient mining degradation and poor long-term soil productivity.
Typically, N fertilizers are applied either in single or two split applications. Split application of N at various crop stages is effective at increasing NUE.
A higher fodder maize seed yield 3. Hu et al. Site-specific N scheduling could be an alternative option to the blanket application of N. Therefore, LCC can be further explored as a diagnostic tool to help farmers make appropriate decisions about N fertilizer applications throughout the crop cycle.
However, the use of sensor-based N application techniques is still at a nascent stage in many parts of the world. Fertilizer placement nearer to the root zone of crop plants, as opposed to even distribution in the field, has the potential to minimize N losses.
The incorporation of fertilizers in the soil via tillage or injection is recommended over broadcasting Ladha et al. The placement of N fertilizer under the seeds at the time of planting, band application, and fertilizer injection increased the NUE and reduced the NH 3 volatilization compared with broadcasting in winter wheat Dao, ; Ladha et al.
Qiang et al. Fertigation, or co-application of N with irrigation, is a viable option for the improvement of NUE. N fertilization at 15 cm depth increased grain yield This approach gives the farmer with the proper equipment the flexibility to engage in multiple applications of low rates to minimize exposure to losses and optimize the opportunity of the crop to take up the right amount at the right time.
The timing of fertilizer application should coincide as close as possible with crop nutrient demand to avoid nutrient loss.
For instance, in single applications, part of the applied nutrient is absorbed by plants, while a substantial portion is vulnerable to loss. Improved N partial factor productivity, agronomic N efficiency, N recovery efficiency, physiological efficiency, grain yield, and N uptake may be optimized when N is applied in four splits at the sowing, 6th leaf stage, 12th leaf stage, and silking stage in maize Zhou et al.
However, commercial-scale agriculture will likely avoid multiple trips across the field and traffic when the crop canopy has closed to reduce fuel, compaction, and crop damage. Likewise, the application of N fertilizer in three splits has increased the wheat grain yield and N recovery use efficiency Liu et al.
Although optimized in this way, the commercial-scale application on flooded rice will be impossible without aerial application. Split application of N at the time of sowing and later stages V12, R1, and R2 increased the plant uptake, photosynthetic efficiency, and grain yield and improved NUE in summer maize Deng et al.
Late and split application of N during jointing, booting, anthesis, and grain filling stages through microsprinkler irrigation increased grain yield, protein concentration, and NUE of wheat by 5. N application with basal to top dressing ratio of between the sowing and jointing stages recorded maximum dry matter yield, crude protein, N recovery, water, and N use efficiency of forage maize in a semiarid region of China Ma et al.
Hence, the split application of N would be superior to the blanket application, though the number and timing of these applications will be limited due to the practical considerations mentioned above. Nitrogen use efficiency is also dependent on the ability of the cropping system Ortiz-Monasterio et al.
Crop diversification can improve soil structure, soil health, vertical nutrient stratification, and mycorrhizal fungal interactions, as well as offer diversity in crop residues. A potential cropping system could help improve N availability and plant uptake Tisdall and Oades, ; Lehman et al.
Cereal- and legume-based cropping is the best system for leaving more residual N accumulation Lehman et al. In a study with fallow followed by rice and legume followed by rice systems in Japan, the fertilizer NUE was higher for the legume broad bean followed by rice with 40 kg N application compared with fallow followed by rice in a clay loam soil Rahman et al.
Similarly, in a year study on clay loam soil in Ontario, Canada, Gaudin et al. In another study conducted in China, Li et al, found a higher N uptake and N harvest index in faba bean when intercropped with wheat compared with sole faba bean.
The benefits associated with crop rotation and intercropping are mainly due to the facilitation through interaction between legumes and cereals and shallow-rooted and deep-rooted crops. Therefore, the rotation of crops with different depths of roots can improve soil structure and stability Obalum and Obi, and enhance resource use efficiency Halli et al, Tap-rooted crops can more easily penetrate compacted soil layers than shallow or fibrous-rooted crops, which serve to enhance the water and N use efficiency of the overall system Chen and Ray, Nitrogen use efficiency of plants depends on the rate of soil N used by roots and accumulation in different plant parts such as the stem, leaf, and harvestable portions.
Therefore, NUE is influenced by the inclusion of cover crops in a cropping system. The inclusion of high biomass-producing crops such as cover crops and dual-use forage crops can enhance the overall NUE of any system Reicosky and Forcella, Cover crops are the crops planted in the off-season when the land is otherwise left uncultivated.
Leaving land fallow increases the likelihood of soil erosion and nutrient leaching. Cover crops can help to protect the soil from loss, keep living roots in the soil as much of the year as possible, and recycle nutrients. Cover crops with low C:N ratio residues legume can hasten the mineralization of organic N which may be responsible for the high NUE of the main crops Franzluebbers et al.
However, the cover crops with high biomass and high C:N ratio residues can lead to the immobilization of N, decreasing NUE for the following cash crop.
A simulation model study using NLEAP N Leaching and Economic Analysis Package predicted that the inclusion of winter cover crops increased the NUE of lettuce by 3. The cover crops in this study included winter wheat and rye, which were modeled to recover and retain soil NO 3 -N in tissue, preventing leaching loss and fertilizing the next crops.
The CERES-N model modified by Quemada and Cabrera includes important considerations outside of simple C:N ratios to predict the mineralization or immobilization potential of cover crop residues. Forage crops often perennials also contribute to the reduction in N loss and improved NUE.
For example, a study from the USA reported that a perennial, such as alfalfa, reduced NO 3 -N leaching by fold over a corn—soybean rotation or continuous corn systems Randall and David, Moreover, persistent roots of forage grasses are important to bind the soil particles together to develop a stable soil structure and potentially capture N from 1.
Thus, surface available N can be utilized by subsequent crops to improve NUE. During the green revolution and post-green revolution, high fertilizer-responsive cultivars have been favored owing to low N-fertilizer costs. Though there are contradictory reports that under low N, more N-responsive modern varieties still perform better than historical varieties Ding et al.
As a consequence, yielding increases are fast approaching a theoretical limit with given physiological and genetic potential of crop cultivars under high N availability Ali et al.
To narrow down the demand—supply gap of food amid decreasing farmland and depleting soils around the globe without further magnifying environmental impacts, breeding strategies to improve the NUE of crop cultivars are becoming the prime focus of agricultural researchers Fiaz et al.
Breeding for high input-responsive cultivars, occurring during the last five to six decades, is different from breeding for NUE. For NUE, the inherent capacity of the plant has to be improved and selected to facilitate efficient uptake and to use N and produce higher yield under moderate or marginal N availability Anbessa and Juskiw, Therefore, breeding for high NUE is mainly aimed at realizing maximum benefit by reducing the N application rate while maintaining the high yield level.
Although there has been a consensus on the need to increase the NUE of crop plants through breeding, practically, no breeding program is primarily dedicated worldwide for this purpose, to the best of our knowledge. Theoretically, there may be different ways to improve NUE through breeding, such as overall consideration of grain yield or biomass growth under limited N conditions, selection and improvement of specific traits that contribute to high NUE, or introduction of the foreign gene.
However, indirect selection for yield has been the common method for achieving higher NUE Cormier et al. NUE is considered a complex trait.
Modifications in traits such as plant height, tiller number, dry weight of shoots and roots, grain yield, spikelet number, number of filled grains per panicle, 1,grain weight, and chloroplasts were reported to improve NUE Lawlor, ; Zhao et al.
Breeding targets for genetic improvement of the plant may be grouped into two major categories: first, improving N uptake efficiency by increasing uptake capacity Le Gouis et al.
There is proven genetic diversity for root N uptake in plants Pereira et al, ; Le Gouis et al. Root morphology plays a critical role in modulating N uptake by plants Garnett and Rebetzke, Plants with rapid root growth can minimize N losses that occur through various field processes Gastal and Lemaire, Anbessa and Juskiw observed that barley plants with higher root dry weight and volume assessed at the five-leaf stage showed higher NUE than normal plants.
Improvements in root traits such as length of root, root-length density, the radius of the root, root surface area, and number, length, and density of root hairs Wang et al. Breeding efforts for enhancing root-related traits are essential for improving NUE.
However, the limited scope of large-scale and high-throughput root phenotyping creates obstacles in breeding programs for selecting and screening specifically for such beneficial root architecture Fiorani and Schurr, The uptake of additional N must match with the metabolism of the plants to avoid systemic feedback control of metabolites representative of the whole-plant N status Nacry et al.
The uptake and utilization of N for the entire plant growth period can be separated into two phases: pre-anthesis and post-anthesis Cormier et al.
At the pre-anthesis stage, plants take up N, and the whole-plant system utilizes it upon receiving fractional interception of light at the start of the stem elongation phase. However, at post-anthesis, once grains appear, plants begin partitioning available N for higher grain yield, jeopardizing the simultaneous improvement in grain yield and protein content Oury and Godin, Higher N utilization is possible under low N supply through an increased specific leaf N area SLN , which is reported to be associated with the embryo size of the plant López-Castañeda et al.
Physiological conditions wherein N is more efficiently utilized are associated with the abundance of prostrate leaves during vegetative growth and semi-erect to erect leaves during later vegetative and reproductive stages. This can be difficult for plant architecture to manipulate Cormier et al.
Normally, at the post-anthesis stage, the grains draw N from the stem and rachis in cereals and then from leaves if necessary.
However, the stay-green plant types are prone to supply N to growing grains slowly and thus impact the balance in the N demand—supply framework van Oosterom et al. Researchers are in consensus that physiologically important traits that directly or indirectly improve N utilization are taken into consideration in breeding programs, in addition to the common target traits.
However, assessing those traits on the bulk scale is a question of technological advancement, resources available to the breeders, and practical limitations Cormier et al. The integration of molecular tools, such as genomics and marker-assisted breeding, into traditional breeding programs has revolutionized genetic enhancements for various intricate traits in crops Jagannadham et al.
The incorporation of these tools has significantly increased the efficiency of the selection process, resulting in a reduction in the time and resources required to develop improved varieties or hybrids.
Recent advances in genomics have further accelerated the generation of genomic resources for many crops, providing breeders with more data and insights into the genetic makeup of crops, ultimately leading to more effective breeding strategies Kumar et al.
Ultimately, these resources can be exploited for identifying, characterizing, and developing molecular markers linked to N-responsive genes in crop plants Yang et al. Two molecular approaches can be explored for improving NUE in crops; one is through a traditional breeding strategy combined with genomic selection, and the other is a transgenic approach, which would target specific NUE-associated genes for the genetic engineering of the plant Good and Beatty, ; McAllister et al.
It is of utmost importance to identify genes or QTLs that govern NUE to enable the breeding of crops with high NUE using approaches such as marker-assisted selection MAS and genomic selection.
Nutrient use efficiency is a complex trait, and as a result, several research groups have undertaken efforts to map the genetic loci in correlation with specific traits Balyan et al.
In rice, 20 single QTLs S-QTLs and 58 pairs of epistatic loci E-QTLs were identified for the grain N, straw N, shoot N, harvest index, grain yield, straw yield, and PE in low N and ordinary N conditions. Harvest index and grain yield were positively correlated with PE in both conditions Cho et al.
In another study carried out with rice, four QTL clusters harboring QTLs for both NDT and NUE traits were identified Wei et al. In European winter wheat, a genome-wide association study using varieties identified genomic regions associated with 28 traits related to NUE Cormier et al.
For the second approach, specific NUE-associated genes should be identified. Some of the efforts successfully mapped genes and identified QTLs. Comparing expressed sequence tags ESTs associated with low N stress response, N uptake and transport, and assimilation with the QTL map has resulted in identifying candidate NUE-associated genes.
Five significant QTL clusters associated with large-rooted architecture and high N uptake efficiency NupE were identified in maize. The root system architecture RSA , such as that found in maize, has an essential role in N acquisition.
NupE had significant phenotypic correlations with RSA Li et al. Three QTLs, NUE1a, NUE1b, and NUE2, were identified in maize for NUE Mandolino et al. Under N starvation, the expression of TaNLP7 displayed enhanced expression in root and shoot tissues of the high NUE genotype Kumar et al.
Forty-seven genes are known to involve N uptake, metabolism, and distribution in maize Wani et al. In barley, 10 independent mapping studies were screened and a number of NUE-associated genes that control complex physiological traits were mapped Han et al.
Even though a large number of reports claim to be identifying QTLs for NUE, some of them are yet to be validated. Since NUE involves a myriad of factors, the traditional breeding strategy combined with MAS will be cumbersome.
Therefore, exploiting genomic selection for improving NUE will speed up the development of superior genotypes by combining high-throughput phenotyping and genotyping Han et al. In wheat, four QTLs, viz. The details of the QTLs identified in the crop plants are given in Table 4.
A total of long non-coding RNAs lncRNAs were altered during N starvation, and these RNAs regulate various protein-coding genes involved in diverse cellular functions Chen et al.
Forty-four miRNAs are differentially regulated under high and low N conditions Li et al. Most of these targets were found to be the genes encoding for the transcription factors. The important miRNAs and transcription factors involved in the N starvation response in Arabidopsis are shown in Figure 4.
In Arabidopsis and maize, the expression of miR was enhanced under N starvation conditions Xu et al. miR regulates the lateral root growth response to N starvation in Arabidopsis Gifford et al. Conversely, downregulation of the transcription factors ARF10 , ARF16 , and ARF17 by N-responsive miR regulates the process of seed germination and development of the seedling after post-germination under N-deficient conditions Liu et al.
Downregulation of miR enhances the expression of the NFYA transcription factors; these genes regulate the function of the nitrate transporter genes, viz. In wheat, simple sequence repeat markers developed from miRa effectively group the panel of wheat genotypes into N-efficient and non-efficient markers.
Figure 4 Schematic representation of important nitrogen-responsive miRNA s and their transcription factor targets involved in nitrogen starvation response. Plants have evolved mechanisms to alter the molecular machinery in response to N availability Gaudinier et al.
Yang et al. Conversely, in Dunaliella salina , 3, were differentially expressed 2, genes were upregulated and were downregulated under N starvation Lv et al. In maize, ZmGLK5 , bZIP , CLC-a , and miRNAb genes play a significant role in regulating genes in response to N Jiang et al.
The CLE peptides and the CBL7 and TAR2 proteins regulate root architecture in response to N starvation Kiba et al. The availability of high-throughput genomics tools and efficient transformation systems in model crops further eases the functional validation of NUE Muthusamy et al.
Several attempts have been made to develop transgenics with high NUE. Overexpression of AtDof1 , AtGS1 , and AtGS2 enhances the N assimilation in transgenic tobacco lines grown under N-starved conditions compared with wild-type plants Wang et al. Transgenic overexpression of OsDof25 modulates C and N metabolism in transgenic Arabidopsis lines during an increased supply of N Santos et al.
Plant species comprising the C 4 photosynthetic pathway have evolved highly efficient molecular mechanisms of carbon fixation. C 4 plants exhibit high radiational, N, and water use efficiencies compared with species with the C 3 photosynthetic mechanism Ghannoum et al.
Engineering the genes involved in the C 4 photosynthetic pathway in C 3 plants remains an essential strategy for enhancing the NUE in C 3 crops Lin et al. Moreover, the availability of N regulates the ethylene and jasmonic acid hormone signaling, thereby regulating the plant response to pathogen infection Vega et al.
miRNA s are known to play an important role in regulating the function of N-responsive genes during N-limiting conditions Nguyen et al. Thus, the identification of gene regulatory networks, including small RNAs involved in regulating the stress response, will further help to understand the development of stress-responsive crops with high NUE Muthusamy et al.
The details of the QTLs identified in the crop plants are given in Table 5. In global agriculture, the low-efficiency uptake by crops of applied N fertilizer is a major concern because of its negative impact on production costs and the environment.
To improve NUE in crops, modern agronomic, breeding, and biotechnological strategies should be incorporated to supplement fundamental nutrient management. Agronomic practices such as precise timing and placement of N fertilizer, site-specific nutrient management, conservation tillage, crop residue retention, and cultivation of high biomass crops can enhance NUE under various soil and climatic conditions.
NUE is a multifaceted trait that involves physiological, biochemical, and molecular regulations. Therefore, the engineering of N-responsive genes through genome editing has great potential for improving NUE in crops.
To breed superior genotypes with high NUE, the use of genomic selection combined with speed breeding techniques in breeding programs is expected to be a valuable approach in the future.
PG, SM, MB, RV, PJ, AM, HH, RR, SB, VP, GT and ML: manuscript writing and editing. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version. The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.
Ali, J. Molecular genetics and breeding for nutrient use efficiency in rice. doi: PubMed Abstract CrossRef Full Text Google Scholar. Alonso-Ayuso, M. Nitrogen use efficiency and residual effect of fertilizers with nitrification inhibitors.
CrossRef Full Text Google Scholar. An, Y. Plant nitrogen concentration, use efficiency, and contents in a tallgrass prairie ecosystem under experimental warming. Global Change Biol. Anas, M. Fate of nitrogen in agriculture and environment: agronomic, eco-physiological and molecular approaches to improve nitrogen use efficiency.
Anbessa, Y. Review: Strategies to increase nitrogen use efficiency of spring barley. Plant Sci. Baggs, E. Nitrous oxide emission from soils after incorporating crop residues. Soil Use Manage. Bai, E. A meta-analysis of experimental warming effects on terrestrial nitrogen pools and dynamics.
New Phytol. Balasubramanian, V. Mosier, A. Washington, USA: Island Press , 19— Google Scholar. Balyan, H. Batjes, N. Total carbon and nitrogen in the soils of the world. Soil Sci. Bhatia, A. Greenhouse gas mitigation in rice—wheat system with leaf color chart-based urea application.
Bird, J. Immobilization of fertilizer nitrogen in rice: effects of straw management practices. Soc Am. Bock, B. Ammonia volatilization from urea fertilizers. National Fertilizer Development Center, Tennessee Valley Authority 3, Bock, E. Nitrogen loss caused by denitrifying nitrosomonas cells using ammonium or hydrogen as electron donors and nitrite as electron acceptor.
Boincean, B. Farming the black earth. sustainable and climate-smart management of chernozem soil Cham: Spring Nature Switherland AG , — Boquet, D. Long-term tillage, cover crop, and nitrogen rate effects on cotton: Yield and fiber properties.
Bouwman, A. Global trends and uncertainties in terrestrial denitrification and N 2 O emissions. Soc Biol. Brasier, K. Identification of quantitative trait loci associated with nitrogen use efficiency in winter wheat. PloS One 15, e Braun, J. Full 15N tracer accounting to revisit major assumptions of 15N isotope pool dilution approaches for gross nitrogen mineralization.
Soil Biol. Brender, J. Prenatal nitrate intake from drinking water and selected birth defects in offspring of participants in the national birth defects prevention study.
Health Persp. Canisares, L. Long-term no-till increases soil nitrogen mineralization but does not affect optimal corn nitrogen fertilization practices relative to inversion tillage. Soil Tillage Res.
Chattha, M. Enhancement of nitrogen use efficiency through agronomic and molecular based approaches in cotton. Chen, B. Soil nitrogen dynamics and crop residues. a review. Chen, G. Penetration of cover crop roots through compacted soils.
Plant Soil. Chen, M. Genome-wide identification and characterization of novel lncRNAs in populus under nitrogen deficiency. Genomics , — How do different fertilization depths affect the growth, yield, and nitrogen use efficiency in rain-fed summer maize?
Field Crops Res. Chien, S. Recent developments of fertilizer production and use to improve nutrient efficiency and minimize environmental impacts.
Cho, Y. Identification of QTLs associated with physiological nitrogen use efficiency in rice. Cells 23, 72— PubMed Abstract Google Scholar. Choi, I. Effect of various litter amendments on ammonia volatilization and nitrogen content of poultry litter.
Poultry Res. Ciampitti, I. Redefining crop breeding strategy for effective use of nitrogen in cropping systems. Cormier, F. Breeding for increased nitrogen-use efficiency: a review for wheat T.
aestivum l. Plant Breed. A genome-wide identification of chromosomal regions determining nitrogen use efficiency components in wheat Triticum aestivum l. Coskun, D. Nitrogen transformations in modern agriculture and the role of biological nitrification inhibition.
Plants 3 6 , 1— Dao, T. Tillage and crop residue effects on carbon dioxide evolution and carbon storage in a paleustoll.
Davies, B. Timing and rate of nitrogen fertilization influence maize yield and nitrogen use efficiency. PloS One 15 5 , e De Baets, S. Cover crops and their erosion-reducing effects during concentrated flow erosion. Catena 85 3 , — Delgado, J. Sequential NLEAP simulations to examine effect of early and late planted winter cover crops on nitrogen dynamics.
Soil Water Conserv. Deng, T. Late split-application with reduced nitrogen fertilizer increases yield by mediating source—sink relations during the grain filling stage in summer maize. Plants 12 3 , Devasirvatham, V.
High temperature tolerance in chickpea and its implications for plant improvement. Crop Pasture Sci. Di, H. Nitrate leaching in temperate agroecosystems: sources, factors and mitigating strategies. Cycling Agroecosyst. Ding, J.
Tillage and seeding strategies for wheat optimizing production in harvested rice fields with high soil moisture. Ding, L. Effects of nitrogen deficiency on photosynthetic traits of maize hybrids released in different years.
Dong, N. Higher yield with less nitrogen fertilizer. Plants 6 9 , — Doydora, S. Release of nitrogen and phosphorus from poultry litter amended with acidified biochar.
Health 8 5 , — Ebrahim, M. Growth and sugar storage in sugarcane grown at temperatures below and above optimum. Plant Physiol. Echarte, L. The response of leaf photosynthesis and dry matter accumulation to nitrogen supply in an older and a newer maize hybrid. Crop Sci. Engel, R. Ammonia volatilization from urea and mitigation by NBPT following surface application to cold soils.
Fageria, N. Enhancing nitrogen use efficiency in crop plants. Nitrogen uptake and use efficiency in upland rice under two nitrogen sources. Plant Anal. Fan, X. Effects of temperature and soil type on ammonia volatilization from slow-release nitrogen fertilizers.
Farjad, M. Nitrogen limitation alters the response of specific genes to biotic stress. Farzadfar, S. Soil organic nitrogen: an overlooked but potentially significant contribution to crop nutrition.
Plant and Soil , 7— Fazily, T. Effect of integrated nutrient management on fertilizer use efficiency in wheat Triticum aestivum l. under irrigated condition. Fiaz, S. Novel plant breeding techniques to advance nitrogen use efficiency in rice: A review.
GM Crops Food 12, — Fiorani, F. Future scenarios for plant phenotyping. Plant Biol. Foulkes, M. Identifying traits to improve the nitrogen economy of wheat: Recent advances and future prospects. Fowler, D.
The global nitrogen cycle in the twenty-first century. Soc B. Effects of global change during the 21st century on the nitrogen cycle. Francis, G. Long-term effects of conventional and no-tillage on selected soil properties and crop yields in Canterbury, new Zealand.
Franzluebbers, A. Agronomic and environmental impacts of pasture—crop rotations in temperate north and south America. Fromme, D. Residual soil nitrogen credits for corn production along the upper Texas Gulf Coast region.
Plant Nutr. Galloway, J. The nitrogen cascade. Garbeva, P. Phylogeny of nitrite reductase nirK and nitric oxide reductase norB genes from Nitrosospira species isolated from soil. Garnett, T.
Genetic approaches to enhancing nitrogen-use efficiency NUE in cereals: challenges and future directions. Gastal, F. N uptake and distribution in crops: an agronomical and ecophysiological perspective. Gaudin, A. Wheat improves nitrogen use efficiency of maize and soybean-based cropping systems.
Gaudinier, A. Transcriptional regulation of nitrogen-associated metabolism and growth. Nature , — Getahun, B. Identification of QTLs associated with nitrogen use efficiency and related traits in a diploid potato population.
Potato Res. Ghaffar, A. Effect of nitrogen on growth and yield of sugarcane. Soc Sugar Cane. Ghannoum, O. Raghavendra, A. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands , — Giacomini, S.
dynamics and recovery of fertilizer 15N in soil and winter wheat crop under minimum versus conventional tillage. Gifford, M. Cell-specific nitrogen responses mediate developmental plasticity. Giller, K. Emerging technologies to increase the efficiency of use of fertilizer nitrogen.
nitrogen cycle: assessing impacts fertilizer Use Food production Environ. Glass, A. Nitrogen use efficiency of crop plants: physiological constraints upon nitrogen absorption. Good, A. Fertilizing nature: a tragedy of excess in the commons.
PloS Biol. Grizzetti, B. The contribution of food waste to global and European nitrogen pollution. Policy 33, — Guo, S. Effects of germinating temperature and time on metabolite profiles of sunflower Helianthus annuus l.
Food Sci. Halli, H. Hamaoka, N. Genetic variations in dry matter production, nitrogen uptake, and nitrogen use efficiency in the AA genome oryza species grown under different nitrogen conditions.
Plant Prod. Han, M. Identification of nitrogen use efficiency genes in barley: Searching for QTLs controlling complex physiological traits. Hao, K. miR An indispensable regulator in plant. Havlin, J. An introduction to nutrient management.
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey. Indian reprint. pp, He, Y. Upper Saddle River. New Jersey, Indian reprint. Herridge, D. Ureide assay for measuring nitrogen-fixation by nodulated soybean calibrated by n methods.
Hu, S. Optimizing nitrogen rates for synergistically achieving high yield and high nitrogen use efficiency with low environmental risks in wheat production—Evidences from a long-term experiment in the North China Plain.
Huang, Y. THP9 enhances seed protein content and nitrogen-use efficiency in maize. Jagannadham, P. Wani, S. Cham: Springer International Publishing , 93— Jewel, Z. Identification of quantitative trait loci associated with nutrient use efficiency traits, using SNP markers in an early backcross population of rice Oryza sativa l.
Jiang, L. Analysis of gene regulatory networks of maize in response to nitrogen. Genes 9, Juang, T. Ammonium fixation by surface soils and clays. Kang, S. Runoff and sediment loss responses to rainfall and land use in two agricultural catchments on the loess plateau of China. Process 15 6 , —
Nutriebt balanced supply of Improving nutrient utilization rates macro- and uilization Improving nutrient utilization rates one of the most important Obesity and socioeconomic factors to achieve high crop yields. If one of IImproving essential uhilization nutrients is deficient, plant growth will nurtient poor Imroving when all other essential nutrients are abundant. Potassium K and nitrogen N are two critical elements needed for proper plant growth that have a positive interaction together synergism. Adequate levels of both nutrients can aid in nutrient uptake and optimize nutrient recovery efficiency. In times of high fertilizer prices or as input expenses are reevaluated, growers may be tempted to reduce or even eliminate applications of K and focus on other nutrient inputs, such as N.
Imroving need nutrients to grow Improving nutrient utilization rates thrive, Electrolyte balance for optimal function effective Improving nutrient utilization rates management is not one-size-fits-all. A nutrient rares plan nutriejt specific to your land, the jtilization you ugilization, and many Impriving factors that change over time. No matter the crops you produce or size of utilizayion operation, USDA can help you reduce input costs, maximize yields, and efficiently manage nutrients to support your bottom line and protect the environment. SMART Nutrient Management includes the 4Rs of nutrient stewardship — the right Sourceright Methodright Rateand right Timing — and emphasizes smart activities to reduce nutrient loss by Assessment of comprehensive, site-specific conditions. A SMART Nutrient Management Plan considers all conditions on the farm and how they influence one another. It is tailored to the unique farm location, soil, climate, crops grown, management conditions, and other site-specific factors.
0 thoughts on “Improving nutrient utilization rates”