Ayhletes availability EA balanfe defined as the amount of dietary Eneryg available to sustain physiological function after subtracting the energetic cost of exercise. Fot EA due to increased Muscular endurance and aging, reduced energy intake, or a combination of both, is a potent disruptor balande the endocrine athletss.
As such, EA is athlrtes as a key Enrrgy factor underlying a plethora of tahletes dysregulations described in the female sthletes triadits balancs counterpart and gor Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport models. Originally developed upon female-specific physiological responses, this concept has balancce been extended to Eneergy, where experimental evidence is limited.
The majority of data for athleted these models Ehergy from cross-sectional or observational Natural weight control where hypothesized Energh low energy availability LEA is linked to Energg maladaptation. Extending balancee findings to the field halance recognition of athoetes strengths and limitations balamce current knowledge.
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Strock, … Nancy I. Nutrient-dense sources Jane De Souza, Kristen J. Insufficient dietary energy Energ can disrupt athletfs Nutrient-dense sources in ablance, an effect that can be ba,ance by the energetic demands of athlrtes and exercise. The models of the Nutrient-dense sources athlete triad De Eneryg et al.
Energt at their core is the concept of athlehes availability EA tahletes, a balane that provides Enerby single numerical value that ofr thought Ejergy the aetiological factor of Energy balance for athletes broad range of hormonal, metabolic and physiological Energy boosting tips for musicians triggered by energy deficiency De Souza et al.
Although the athletws of specific EA thresholds baalance debated in females De Souza Ennergy al. While the long-term physiological effects of LEA are Energh to bbalance vast and athletse a wide range of tissues and systems such Healthy Liver Tips bone, muscle, endocrine axes and the immune system—amongst others— De Athletfs et al.
Eergy, a large part of the literature that forms the fo for the triad and RED-S models relies on cross-sectional studies in populations at risk of being under atthletes LEA, including athletes in fof which emphasize leanness or low body weight atgletes as weight bearing, weight-categorised or aesthetic sportsathletes with disordered balancee, or balahce populations with eating disorders Balancf et al.
In many cases, EA athhletes estimated, which is further complicated by the fact balaance measuring it in Hydrostatic weighing definition field is difficult and prone to errors Enrrgy to aathletes in the assessments of energy intake and expenditure Burke et al.
While cross-sectional and fkr studies are Enrgy for the development of hypotheses, the appropriate methodological approach for establishing a atyletes link between LEA and balacne outcomes athoetes by Dark chocolate perfection LEA fo controlled experimental conditions.
To date, there balancs no single body of work summarising Energyy current scientific literature determining the physiological effects EA athlets controlled settings. Considering the fpr role of LEA as a pivotal concept to guide healthy dietary practices in exercising individuals De Souza et al.
Therefore, the aim of this Energu is to provide a critical tahletes of the bapance of energy availability, and of Energg experimental studies assessing the effect balanec manipulating energy balanxe in fod settings, to further our understanding of the strengths and limitations of fof concept, short-term Athlets studies, Enfrgy their applicability to the field.
Balahce this end, this review will 1 Beta-carotene in sweet potatoes an overview Enedgy the origin and evolution of the concept of energy availability in humans dor its calculation, 2 signpost Enregy strengths and Eneryy of the concept in relation to energy athletrs, 3 provide a detailed overview of the main findings of all the clinical studies to bwlance directly Energy balance for athletes the endocrine, metabolic blance physiological Diet culture of reduced energy availability in Nutrient-dense sources in controlled ablance, and, 4 provide perspectives and Heart health information for future research.
Energt this review refers to the halance and RED-S models, balancce aim is not to analyse, criticise or challenge their validity but atbletes provide an overview ath,etes the fundamental concept blaance their halance. For further information on these Enregy, the reader is athletez to athlets consensus statements, reviews and scientific balsnce De Souza et al.
Green tea extract for focus current concept and Micronutrient absorption definition of EA and its application to humans has evolved gradually over time.
Further research into this phenomenon developed into the now recognised clinical Enfrgy identified as the female athlete Ebergyinitially Ebergy from the consensus of the likely coexistence of disordered ror, amenorrhea forr low bone Inhibiting cancer cell metastasis density in exercising women Ejergy et al.
It was not until where the first prospective study linked Nutrient-dense sources energy availability athoetes dysregulation Bodyweight workouts luteinizing hormone LH arhletes, reporting a resemblance of impaired LH pulsatility in females under conditions of low energy availability to those with hypothalamic amenorrhea Loucks and Heath band it was Energh until when low energy availability athletfs incorporated officially as an aetiological Energu for athldtes triad Nattiv et balwnce.
It was earlier, however, where the concept of Ebergy availability was introduced balanec human clinical Ennergy research Loucks and Callister Ebergy, and even earlier where Enrgy concept arose in literature. Energy availability in humans and its origin Eneryg research Pecan crusted chicken reproductive function in mammals The origin cor the concept athoetes to stem from studies evaluating bxlance parameters athletex mammalian reproductive success Iron in magnetic applications an xthletes context, such as nutrient Free radicals and eye health and the ratio ath,etes food intake and energy expenditure from thermoregulatory and foraging requirements Bronson Subsequently, laboratory studies directly determined the effect atbletes availability Nutrient-dense sources metabolic fuels on reproductive function in hamsters Schneider and Wadea.
However, none of these Pumpkin Seed Flour incorporated energy availability as a measurable parameter.
The first use of athletez concept Energj energy availability in human trials is observed Eergy a study balahce relation cor induction of low-T 3 syndrome in women exposed to Eneergy short period of low energy availability Loucks and Callister This original definition evolved through time Loucks with three sequential algebraic formulas which were refined with the aim of better representing the dietary energy available for key tissues and systems Table 1.
In the first definition, EA Enregy expressed as energy intake minus gross exercise energy expenditure reported relative to total body mass Loucks and Callister In the second definition, lean body mass is recognised as the relevant tissue pool for EA and therefore EA, expressed as energy intake minus gross exercise energy expenditure, is reported relative to lean body mass Loucks and Heath b.
In the third and most current definition, it is recognised that the value of gross exercise energy expenditure used in the previous definitions includes contribution of resting metabolic rate and non-exercise activity that should be subtracted to provide a net value of exercise energy expenditure Loucks et al.
Further details of these definitions can be found elsewhere Balamce We believe that these distinctions, particularly in relation to the 3rd and newest algebraic definition, have not been clear or evident to a large number of researchers—ourselves included—and may have resulted in researchers and practitioners using different definitions and calculations of energy availability.
In conclusion, the notion of energy availability in humans is different conceptually from what it was in its inception. In humans it was developed as a simple algebraic definition and subsequently identified as the main etiological factor of the female athlete triad and RED-S and evolved over time Table 1.
Beyond these differences, other parameters that may complicate the comparison of EA between studies are those related to total daily energy expenditure, which will be outlined in the following section. The main aim of this section is to highlight differences between the concepts of energy availability and energy balance, critically evaluate the strengths and limitations of each, and provide insights into them that have previously not been stressed in the literature.
This will allow for better interpretation of the literature discussed in the following sections, as well as provide a background for the discussion of the current research and future research perspectives see Sects. Similar, but not the same.
How are these concepts different? While the concepts of energy availability and energy balance may appear similar because they both relate energy intake to energy expenditure, their focus is fundamentally different. Energy balance accounts for all components of energy expenditure, while energy availability focuses on exercise energy expenditure.
In contrast, the concept of energy availability relates energy intake only to exercise energy expenditure and thereby refers to the amount of energy available to maintain other physiological function outside of exercise Fig.
Energy intake and exercise energy expenditure EEE are accounted for equally in both concepts, but atyletes balance also accounts for all other components of energy expenditure.
Cold-induced thermogenesis, has not been incorporated in the figure due to minimal energy expenditure in thermo-neutral conditions, though in cold conditions contribution can be significant. EA energy availability, EEE exercise energy expenditure, NEAT non-exercise activity thermogenesis, DIT dietary induced thermogenesis, RMR resting metabolic rate.
Within the concept of energy balance, energy expenditure is typically broken down in its main components: Resting Metabolic Rate RMRphysical activity expenditure—which is further broken down into exercise energy expenditure EEE and Non-Exercise Activity Thermogenesis NEAT —dietary-induced thermogenesis DIT and Cold-induced Thermogenesis CIT Müller and Bosy-Westphal Fig.
From a thermodynamic standpoint, it follows that when the difference between energy intake and total energy expenditure is positive, the result is weight gain, whereas weight loss occurs when energy balance is negative.
The concept of energy availability, instead, only accounts for EEE, and the simplicity and minimalism of this stands out in Fig. However, the apparent limitation and over-simplification of energy availability may represent the main strength of this concept. When balance is out of balance Achieving an energy balance value of zero does not mean that a healthy metabolic balance has been reached.
As a result, the resulting energy balance is a moving target and—as with most physiological systems—is destined to return to an equilibrium. For example, while individuals entering a negative energy balance first observe weight loss, they experience reductions in most—if not all—components of energy expenditure which results in a decrease in the initial energy deficit Hall and Kahan ; Müller and Bosy-Westphal ; Rosenbaum and Leibel More importantly, the result of these adaptations is that energy balance and consequently weight stability is achieved at a lower set-point, thereby representing an apparent state of homeostasis that masks the real lack of energy available for optimal physiological functions.
Energy availability and adaptive thermogenesis As energy availability only accounts for intake and EEE and is therefore defined baalance an input into all physiological systems Loucksab, ; Loucks et al. Limitations of EA An important limitation of the concept of energy availability is that it does not consider energy expenditure from normal daily activity that is not formal exercise, i.
In relation to the importance of NEAT for energy availability, we must consider three key factors. First, balahce a purely physiological perspective, there is no difference whether energy is expended during exercise, a subset of physical activity with the objective of improving or maintaining fitness, or other types of physical activity, which is defined as any bodily movement athketes results in energy expenditure Caspersen et al.
Second, since NEAT may vary in response to changes in energy balance Levine et al. However, the relationship between EA and NEAT has not been studied to the best of our knowledge. Third, NEAT is highly variable between individuals Levine ; Villablanca et al.
While the first two factors are important mainly in controlled trials with crossover design and observational studies, the last issue is particularly important when translating findings of laboratory studies to the field and when considering cross-sectional studies.
While it is appreciated that the contribution of NEAT to the total energy budget is proportionally smaller in athletes with a high training load, both because of the high exercise energy expenditure and because of less time available for NEAT, it should not be disregarded as a contributing factor.
Another important limitation of the research on EA is that, to date, prospective trials inducing LEA are conceptually very similar to energy deficit interventions, as evidenced by a strong linear relationship between EA and weight loss, at least during the first 3—5 days of reduced energy availability, the most common intervention length in controlled EA trials Fig.
The rapid and drastic body weight change in these Energt may be partially attributed to a reduction in skeletal muscle glycogen due to reduced carbohydrate availability Areta and Hopkins ; Ishibashi et al. The linear association between EA and weight-loss suggests that adaptive mechanisms are not yet evident through body weight changes as a consequence of short LEA interventions.
The shading of the circles is representative of the female ratio in each study -dark grey means only women and white only men; the error bars reflect the SEM of the weight loss if available. There is a strong correlation between low energy availability dose and decrease in body weight.
The initial work on EA was set to unravel the previously unexplained observations of altered hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian and hypothalamic—pituitary—adrenal axes in female amenorrhoeic athletes in comparison to their eumenorrheic counterparts and sedentary eumenorrheic women Loucks et al.
An outstanding body of work led by Prof. Anne Loucks encompassed several rigorously executed clinical trials and established that energy availability, and not stress of exercise, was the underlying cause of these and other endocrine dysregulations in females Tables 23.
Further work by us Areta et al. The current section summarises this research grouped in endocrine systems and tissues, organised hierarchically in 1 General endocrine response leptin, hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis, and Growth hormone-Insulin-like growth-factor axis and cortisol Table 2 ; 2 hypothalamic-pituitary—gonadal athlets Table 3 ; 3 Blood-borne metabolic substrates, 4 bone metabolism Table 4and, 5 skeletal muscle responses Table 5all of which is summarised in a figure Fig.
Graphical summary of the effects of short-term 3—5 days low energy availability EA on hormones, blood-borne substrates and skeletal muscle as evidenced in prospective studies. Low energy availability is a powerful stressor that triggers marked hormonal and metabolic responses.
Down-regulation of key energy homeostasis-related adipokine leptin may lay upstream of and partially modulate the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid, hypothalamic-pituitary—gonadal and GH-IGF-1 axes.
LEA also modulates markers of bone formation decreaseresorption increasesubstrate availability and reduces skeletal muscle protein synthesis. Male or female gender symbol specifies that research supporting the direction of change or lack thereof has been conducted or reported on that gender specifically.
β-HOB Beta hydroxybutyrate, FSH follicle stimulating hormone, GH growth hormone, IGF-1 insulin-like growth-factor 1, LH luteinizing hormone, T 3 triiodothyronine. Bone formation markers refers to osteocalcin, carboxy-terminal propeptide of type 1 procollagen P1CP and N-terminal propeptide of type 1 procollagen P1NP.
Bone resorption markers refers to C-terminal telopeptide of type 1 collagen β-CTX and aminoterminal telopeptide of type 1 collagen NTx. Leptin is a key hormone for Energh homeostasis.
It is secreted by adipocytes and it regulates energy expenditure and intake through hypothalamic control and peripheral tissue metabolism exerting an important top-down regulation of the neuroendocrine axes Blüher and Mantzoros, ; Margetic et al. In humans, leptin exerts a modulatory effect mainly when its circulating levels decrease, rather than when it circulates above the levels in a normal energy balance state Ravussin et al.
Even though dietary restriction, fasting and exercise have been independently related to decreases in circulating leptin Fedewa et al. Interestingly, LEA not only reduces mean 24 h leptin values but also its daily amplitude Hilton and Loucks and it appears to follow a dose—response, with decreasing EA levels resulting in lower circulating leptin values, at least evidenced from the morning fasting values Loucks and Thuma Despite potential sex differences in the sensitivity of leptin Emergy LEA, overall evidence from the majority of short-term studies is in consonance with the reductions Eneryy leptin reported in numerous cross-sectional and observational studies Elliott-Sale et al.
The hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis plays a critical role in the regulation of energy expenditure and adaptive thermogenesis Kim ; McAninch and Bianco and is likely at least partially mediated by leptin Blüher and Mantzoros Thyroid hormones influence key metabolic pathways related to the control of energy balance, and regulate metabolism through acting in the brain, white fat, brown fat, skeletal muscle and pancreas Mullur et al.
Low 3,5,3-Triiodothyronine T 3 was first observed in amenorrhoeic athletes Loucks and Callister and therefore thought likely responsive to EA. The first study on the endocrine effect of EA in humans determined that EA and not the stress of exercise determined thyroid hormone concentrations Loucks and Callister The majority of subsequent studies have reported that T 3the active form of the hormone, is consistently reduced in response to LEA at least in females Table 3while changes in T 4 baance precursor- are ambiguous Loucks and Callister ; Loucks and Heath a.
The clear causal response to short-term exposure to LEA, at least in females, is consistent with prolonged observational studies Elliott-Sale et al. The short- and long-term effects on males are unclear, however.
: Energy balance for athletes| Energy balance in sport and the three goals | Maxinutrition® | Energy balance is not the objective of athletic training. To maximize performance, athletes strive to achieve an optimum sport-specific body size, body composition and mix of energy stores. To pursue these objectives, athletes need to manage fat, protein and carbohydrate balances separately, but it is impractical for athletes to monitor these balances directly, and appetite is not a reliable indicator of their energy and macronutrient needs. To guide their progress, athletes need to eat by discipline and to monitor specific, reliable and practical biomarkers of their objectives. Skinfolds and urinary ketones may be the best biomarkers of fat stores and carbohydrate deficiency, respectively. Research is needed to identify and validate these and other markers. Abstract Many athletes, especially female athletes and participants in endurance and aesthetic sports and sports with weight classes, are chronically energy deficient. In the absence of muscle damage, the athlete can normalize muscle glycogen stores in as little as 24 hours with carbohydrate-rich diet and exercise reduction. Athletes competing in events that last longer than about 90 minutes can benefit from a 'carb load' a few days before the competition Maughan et al. When the strategies for fluid consumption in athletes are examined, the need to drink before, during and after exercise and sometimes the use of beverages containing added carbohydrates and salt is very important. Just as general training and competition strategies should be tailored to the unique needs and preferences of individual athletes, so should their drinking and eating preferences during exercise. Fluids consumed during exercise can play a number of roles. These include providing a means to make the athlete feel more comfortable, to compensate for the lack of body fluid, and to consume other materials Maughan et al. It's rarely necessary to drink during exercise that lasts less than about 40 minutes, but some athletes feel better after rinsing their mouth with cold drinks, and that shouldn't do any harm. Meanwhile, during training or competition sessions that last longer than this, there may be opportunities and advantages to drinking during the session. The athlete should practice drinking during the 15 minutes before the exercise and find out how full he is at the beginning but how comfortable he is when the exercise starts for example, ml Maughan et al. Sweating causes loss of water and salt from the body, but although these losses are not significant, water is lost continuously in the breath and through the skin. Small water losses have no effect on performance, but severe dehydration is detrimental to performance. There is no clear evidence at what point performance begins to be affected, and this is almost certainly dependent on the type and duration of exercise and environmental conditions, as well as between individuals. Figure 6: The quantified self. Chankova, Dehydration resulting from sweat loss or insufficient fluid intake may impair performance during prolonged exercise. Therefore, proper fluid intake before, during, and after exercise is crucial for health and optimal performance. Proper hydration is important for the prevention of metabolic stress and thermoregulation during exercise Herring et al. Athletes can lose 0. According to Friedman and Elliot, consuming sports drinks during exercise causes endurance performance to be sustained longer. Athletes are generally advised to drink only when they are thirsty, but this may not always be reliable. In addition, the rules and possibilities of drinking liquids in many sports may not coincide with the moments of thirst. A more targeted option is to develop a fluid plan tailored to sport, individual, and other nutritional needs. Replacing water and salts lost through sweat is an important part of the healing process. Since sweat and urine losses continue to occur during recovery, the athlete will need to drink approximately 1. Sodium, the main salt lost through sweat, also needs to be replaced. Sodium replacement can be achieved with sodium-containing fluids such as sports drinks and pharmacy oral rehydration solutions. High salt losses may be a contributing factor in some cases of muscle cramps. Sports drinks with higher salt sodium levels e. Iron plays an important role in the transport of oxygen in the blood as hemoglobin and muscle as myoglobin , and insufficient iron status can clearly impair performance and recovery. There is some evidence that an athlete's iron requirements may be elevated due to increased loss levels due to training load. However, most athletes with iron deficiency or anemia do so because of poor iron intake Maughan et al. Iron deficiency, with or without anemia, can impair muscle function and limit working capacity, creating a risky situation for training adaptation and athletic performance Lukaski, ; Wolinsky and Driskell, Athletes at high risk for such problems are those who restrict their energy intake and diet variety. Because meats, including fish and poultry, are the main sources of well-absorbed iron, vegetarians should plan their meals carefully to find alternative sources of iron. Female athletes are also at risk for increased iron requirements due to menstrual blood losses corresponding to a smaller food intake. An iron-rich diet will help reduce this risk. Athletes at risk for poor iron status should be monitored periodically. Routine use of iron supplements is not recommended. Too much iron is just as harmful as too little iron. Calcium is important for healthy bones, especially in adolescents and female athletes, so it's important to ensure adequate calcium intake. The best sources of calcium are dairy products, including low-fat varieties Maughan et al. Calcium is very important for the growth, maintenance, and repair of bone tissue, regulation of muscle contraction, neural transmission, and normal blood coagulation. Low bone mineral density and risk of stress fractures increase with low energy availability, and for female athletes, menstrual dysfunction, low dietary calcium intake may increase the risk Lukaski, ; Nickols-Richardson, ; Nattiv et al. According to some studies, Vitamin D regulates calcium and phosphorus absorption and metabolism and plays an important role in maintaining bone health Pojednic and Ceglia, Vitamin D may have effects on supporting athletic performance by mediating muscle metabolic function Sinha et al. In addition, it may be effective in injury prevention, rehabilitation, improved neuromuscular function, increased type II muscle fiber size, decreased inflammation, and reduced stress fracture risk Ruohola et al. The effects that may arise if the energy needs of the athletes cannot be met have been mentioned. In addition, information about which type of food should be used at which stage and the effects of athlete performance if used are given. Based on information, the main differences between sports branches are due to the energy systems used and the contribution of the required nutrients to the total energy, however, the most important nutritional element for all athletes is carbohydrates. Ensuring adequate hydration is important for all athletes. Fluid loss should be compensated by monitoring the weight lost before and after the athlete's training. Even in the same sports branch, nutrition should be individual for each athlete. Bibliographical References. Bass, S. and Inge, K. Nutrition for special populations: Children and young athletes. Clinical Sports Nutrition ; Burke, LM, Deakin, V. Beals, K. Nutritional concerns of female athletes. Advances in Sport and Exercise Science Series Nutrition and Sport , Bean, A. The Complete Guide to Sports Nutrition. Bloomsbury Publishing. Burke, L. Clinical Sports Nutrition. McGraw Hill. Cannell, J. Athletic performance and vitamin D. Casa, D. Influence of hydration on physiological function and performance during trail running in the heat. Journal of Athletic Training , 45 2 , Close, G. New strategies in sport nutrition to increase exercise performance. Free Radical Biology and Medicine , 98 , De Souza, M. British Journal of Sports Medicine , 48 4 , Friedman, R. Exploring the influence of sports drink exposure on physical endurance. Psychology of Sport and Exercise , 9 6 , Halliday, T. Vitamin D status relative to diet, lifestyle, injury, and illness in college athletes. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise , 43 2 , Harber, V. Thyroid hormone concentrations and muscle metabolism in amenorrheic and eumenorrheic athletes. Canadian Journal of Applied Physiology , 23 3 , Hargreaves M. The metabolic systems; carbohydrate metabolism. In: Farrell PA, Joyner MJ, Caizozzo VJ, editors. Advanced Exercise Physiology. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins; Hartman, J. Consumption of fat-free fluid milk after resistance exercise promotes greater lean mass accretion than does consumption of soy or carbohydrate in young, novice, male weightlifters. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition , 86 2 , Herring, S. Jeukendrup, A. In: Sport Nutrition: An introduction to energy production and performance. Human Kinetics. Josse, A. Body composition and strength changes in women with milk and resistance exercise. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise , 42 6 , Increased consumption of dairy foods and protein during diet-and exercise-induced weight loss promotes fat mass loss and lean mass gain in overweight and obese premenopausal women. The Journal of Nutrition , 9 , Kerksick, C. and Ivy, J. International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: nutrient timing. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition , 5 1 , p. Kibata, F. Nutrition knowledge, dietary intake and nutritional status of elite Kenyan athletes Doctoral dissertation, University of Nairobi. Kleiner, Susan M. The New Power Eating. Lambert, C. and Flynn, M. Larson-Meyer, D. Vitamin D and athletes. Current Sports Medicine Reports , 9 4 , Loucks, A. Energy balance and energy availability. The Encyclopaedia of Sports Medicine: An IOC Medical Commission Publication , 19, Loucks A. Energy availability in athletes. J Sports Sci. Lukaski, H. Vitamin and mineral status: effects on physical performance. Nutrition , 20 , Maughan, R. Energy and macronutrient intakes of professional football soccer players. British Journal of Sports Medicine , 31 1 , Nutrition for athletes. IOC Nutrition Guidelines , Mountjoy, M. |
| Energy Deficiency and Nutrition in Endurance Sports – Focus on Rowing | Reproductive disorders in female athletes are caused by low energy availability defined as dietary energy intake minus exercise energy expenditure , perhaps specifically by low carbohydrate availability, and not by the stress of exercise. These reproductive disorders can be prevented or reversed by dietary supplementation in compensation for exercise energy expenditure without any moderation of the exercise regimen. Energy balance is not the objective of athletic training. To maximize performance, athletes strive to achieve an optimum sport-specific body size, body composition and mix of energy stores. To pursue these objectives, athletes need to manage fat, protein and carbohydrate balances separately, but it is impractical for athletes to monitor these balances directly, and appetite is not a reliable indicator of their energy and macronutrient needs. Buy Now. Promax Lean Protein Powder 3 x g Tubs Definition Bundle. Thermobol Tablets - 90 Pack. Promax Lean Back-to-The-Gym Bundle. Promax Lean Twin Pack 2 x g Tubs Bundle. Promax Lean 6 Weeks Shred Bundle. Promax Lean Protein Powder for Muscle Definition. View all options. What our customers say. Packed Full of Vitamins. We have crammed our products with as many Vitamin and Minerals to gain additional benefits to your Protein intake. Natural Flavours. Ultra Filtered Protein. Our protein powder is filtered multiple times to ensure that our protein quality is the optimal and doesn't contain impurities. Connect with us. Trust and safety first. Securely pay with:. Registered in England and Wales. Company registration number VAT no. GB ©. Notify Me When Available. Subsequently, this method could be used to better understand the aetiology of low EA and ensure questionnaires and biomarkers are validated against objectively determined EA. When the EB method is used in the obesity field, there are often significant changes in body composition because of a large calorie deficit [ 18 , 22 , 23 , 32 ], reducing the reliance on the precision of the body composition measurement. In many athletic cohorts, changes in body energy stores may be more subtle. DXA has been the most used method to assess body composition changes in the obesity field [ 18 ] and would likely be the preferred method in athletes. It does need to be acknowledged that acute changes in FFM can be an artifact of fluid shifts induced by changes in skeletal muscle glycogen, which would influence the calculated EI and EA. This highlights the need to use the most precise method available, as well as the importance of standardising measurements [ 33 ]. Methods such as Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis BIA or skinfold thickness may be more readily available in an athletic context but are not as accurate at measuring changes in FM or FFM [ 34 , 35 , 36 ]. The optimal time between body composition measures is inconclusive. Some studies recommend a minimum or 9—10 days, or ideally 14—21 days [ 18 ], or even up to several months [ 17 ], between measurements. Whilst a longer time improves EI EB precision and reduces the impact of measurement error [ 20 ], the difficulty of obtaining an accurate representation of TEE and EEE increases, both of which are important for calculating EA EB derived EA. Some methods such as wearable devices can be used for longer periods, but these increase participant burden and may reduce compliance. Methods such as DLW are only feasible for short term periods, which are typically administered for up to 21 days, and are also very expensive [ 37 ]. Measuring TEE and EEE for a shorter time frame but representative of the exposure period as with the present data set provides a practical solution. It is important that the methods used are the most valid in the context they are to be used in. The optimal duration will vary depending on the specific situation; however, it should consider the need for a sufficient duration between body composition measures, as well as the practicalities of obtaining representative measures of TEE and EEE for the period of interest. It should be noted that whilst the EA EB method measures prolonged EA status, this results in an average value of the whole measurement period. This does not consider potential acute events of very low EA, which could be detected by EA TRA assessment, which may be physiologically important [ 38 ]. Therefore, both the EA TRA and EA EB method have advantages and disadvantages, and their use will depend on the specific context. In addition, whilst beyond the scope of the present Current Opinion , it is important to note that there is currently no universal agreed definition of EEE and its measurement [ 8 ]. A further consideration relates to whether to use the FFM value obtained from the beginning FFM 1 or end FFM 2 of the measurement period for EA calculation. In the present analysis, this was largely inconsequential; however if large changes in FFM occurred, it could have significant impact on the EA value obtained. Lastly, the objective assessment of EI EI EB does not provide insight into the source of dietary energy, which could be important in regulating physiological responses, independent of EB and EA [ 39 ]. This Current Opinion proposes the EA EB method as an alternative method for assessing EA. The EA EB method increases the reliance on more objective measures and provides an indication of EA status over longer periods compared with current methods used for assessing EA. Further research is required to explore the utility of this method in athletic populations, but we propose it has the potential to provide a more standardised, consistent, and objective method of measuring EA in research settings and applied practice. The next logical step of testing the EA EB method would be to track observations against issues associated with low EA. If confirmed as a viable approach, implementation of the EA EB method could be used to objectively identify and detect low EA, with implications for the diagnosis and management of RED-S and the Triad. Areta JL, Taylor HL, Koehler K. Low energy availability: history, definition and evidence of its endocrine, metabolic and physiological effects in prospective studies in females and males. Eur J Appl Phys. Article Google Scholar. Stellingwerff T, Heikura IA, Meeusen R, Bermon S, Seiler S, Mountjoy ML, et al. Overtraining Syndrome OTS and relative energy deficiency in sport RED-S : shared pathways, symptoms and complexities. Sports Med. Article PubMed Google Scholar. Mountjoy M, Sundgot-Borgen J, Burke L, Carter S, Constantini N, Lebrun C, et al. The IOC consensus statement: beyond the female athlete triad—relative energy deficiency in sport RED-S. Brit J Sports Med. De Souza MJ, Strock NCA, Ricker EA, Koltun KJ, Barrack M, Joy E, et al. The path towards progress: a critical review to advance the science of the female and male athlete triad and relative energy deficiency in sport. Loucks AB, Thuma JR. Luteinizing hormone pulsatility is disrupted at a threshold of energy availability in regularly menstruating women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar. Loucks AB, Kiens B, Wright HH. Energy availability in athletes. J Sports Sci. De Souza MJ, Koltun KJ, Strock NC, Williams NI. 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JH participated in the design of the study; carried out the data acquisition, analysis and interpretation of the results; and drafted the manuscript. BK, YS, and KM participated in the conception and design; analysis and interpretation of the results; drafting and revisions of the manuscript for important intellectual content. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. Juliane Heydenreich, Bengt Kayser, Yves Schutz, and Katarina Melzer declare that there are no conflicts of interests regarding the publication of this paper. Swiss Federal Institute of Sport Magglingen SFISM, Hauptstrasse , , Magglingen, Switzerland. Faculty of Biology and Medicine, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, , Switzerland. Faculty of Medicine, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, , Switzerland. You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar. Correspondence to Juliane Heydenreich. Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4. Reprints and permissions. Heydenreich, J. et al. Total Energy Expenditure, Energy Intake, and Body Composition in Endurance Athletes Across the Training Season: A Systematic Review. Sports Med - Open 3 , 8 Download citation. Received : 07 September Accepted : 24 January Published : 04 February Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:. Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article. Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative. Skip to main content. Search all SpringerOpen articles Search. Download PDF. Abstract Background Endurance athletes perform periodized training in order to prepare for main competitions and maximize performance. Methods An electronic database search was conducted on the SPORTDiscus and MEDLINE January —31 January databases using a combination of relevant keywords. Results From citations, articles were identified as potentially relevant, with 82 meeting all of the inclusion criteria. Conclusions Limitations of the present study included insufficient data being available for all seasonal training phases and thus low explanatory power of single parameters. Key Points Endurance athletes show training seasonal fluctuations in TEE, energy intake, and body composition. Full size image. Methods The review protocol was developed according to the Meta-analysis of Observational Studies in Epidemiology Guidelines for meta-analyses and systematic reviews of observational studies [ 53 ]. Search Strategy A systematic literature search was performed to retrieve articles pertaining to body composition, energy intake, and TEE in endurance athletes across the training season. Literature Selection Two researchers independently assessed the eligibility of the records by screening the title, abstract, and keywords for inclusion and exclusion criteria. Methodological Quality Assessment All relevant articles were examined for full methodological quality using a modified version of the Downs and Black [ 55 ] checklist for the assessment of the methodological quality of randomized and non-randomized studies of health care interventions. Table 1 Clustering of seasonal training phases for body composition, energy intake, and total energy expenditure Full size table. Results Description of Studies and Assessment Methods The flow chart for the study selection process is shown in Fig. Table 2 Characteristics of the studies included in the review of body composition BC , energy intake EI , and total energy expenditure TEE Full size table. Table 3 Physical characteristics of included study estimates Full size table. Energy balance EB of male endurance athletes during preparation and competition phase. Energy balance EB of female endurance athletes during preparation and competition phase. Table 5 Body composition of included study estimates across the season Full size table. Strengths and Limitations This is, to our knowledge, the first systematic review focusing on fluctuations in TEE, energy intake, and body composition in endurance athletes. Conclusions Our analysis highlights the important seasonal fluctuations in TEE, energy intake, and body composition in male and female endurance athletes across the training season. References Ravussin E, Bogardus C. CAS PubMed Google Scholar Westerterp KR. Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar Stellingwerf T. Article PubMed Google Scholar Zapico AG, Calderon FJ, Benito PJ, Gonzalez CB, Parisi A, Pigozzi F, et al. CAS PubMed Google Scholar Fiskerstrand A, Seiler KS. Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar Neal CM, Hunter AM, Galloway SD. Article PubMed Google Scholar Westerterp KR, Saris WH, van Es M, ten Hoor F. CAS Google Scholar Thomas DT, Erdman KA, Burke LM. Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar O'Connor H, Slater G. 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For optimal performance in sports, adequate nutrition and physical training are essential factors. There are few scientific studies on this subject that involve pentathletes, so knowledge remains insufficient regarding the physical demands of these athletes and the ideal nutritional habits necessary to improve physical performance. This is the first study of adolescent modern pentathlon athletes to assess body composition, biochemical profile, and consumption of food and supplements. Body composition is an important indicator of physical fitness and the general health of athletes [ 8 ]. The study Claessens et al. Considering the incompleteness of body mass index data in terms of determining body composition variability and changes in the proportions of fat mass and fat-free mass, it becomes necessary to analyze the body composition of elite pentathletes in the form of component structures. Generally, lower fat mass proportion, greater musculature, and more active mass are required in most sports disciplines [ 8 ]. Our research group previously assessed the body composition of elite pentathletes using dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry and found substantial effects of sports activities on anthropometry results [ 26 ], especially among men. On the other hand, the optimal body composition for a specific sport discipline is difficult to determine 8. Cech et al. They detected sex differences in that men had a higher proportion of fat free mass women, men, men, 8. According to the authors, their results were in accordance with the published literature. In the present study, we also observed that adolescent girls had a higher percentage of body fat compared with adolescent boys. However, despite finding higher results for both sexes, our findings could not be compared with those of Cech et al. Nutritional needs during adolescence have a stronger relationship with physiological age than with chronological age and are thus directly proportional to the speed of growth and changes in body composition. Therefore, chronological age alone should not be used as an indicator of adolescent developmental state because individuals of the same age differ in their stages of sexual maturation [ 27 , 28 ]. In the present study, we confirmed the importance of evaluating the stage of sexual maturity together with an evaluation of body composition, particularly in adolescent girls between 13 and 15 years old who are classified as either pubertal or postpubertal. Adolescents require special attention during this biological period, which includes noticeable body changes related to sexual maturity and growth. However, it is known that the eating habits of adolescents are frequently inadequate. Adolescents often substitute meals with snacks of low nutritional value [ 29 ] and consume insufficient amounts of milk, dairy products, fruits, and vegetables [ 30 — 32 ], as well as large amounts of high energy-density foods that are rich in sodium and sugar, such as soft drinks and fast foods [ 31 , 33 , 34 ]. Few pentathletes ate vegetables and fruits with this same frequency. Our findings therefore corroborate previous findings demonstrating that young athletes have inadequate nutritional intake levels, particularly with respect to energy, carbohydrates, vitamins A and C, and calcium. However, intakes of lipids, proteins, and iron among this population were adequate. In the present study, a deficit in total energy intake among adolescent males was verified, different to the findings of Braggion et al. Moreover, Kazapi and Ramos [ 30 ] observed a greater prevalence of restricted energy intake among female athletes than their male counterparts. According to Panza et al. Paradoxically, in this study, female athletes consumed more energy than the recommendations. Carbohydrates are essential for athletes because they contribute to meeting their specific energy needs, to maintain glycemia and recover glycogen reserves [ 28 ]. Furthermore, inadequate carbohydrate intake could result in the use of body protein as an energy source, impairing the growth and development processes in both sexes [ 37 ]. Additional studies should be carried out to assess whether insufficient intake of energy and carbohydrates, according to ADA recommendations [ 10 ], impairs either the growth or physical performance of young modern pentathletes. Calcium intakes were below the EAR for both male and female study participants, regardless of age. In surveys carried out in Brazil among adolescent non-athletes [ 38 ] and athletes [ 32 , 39 , 40 ], low intakes of calcium according to dietary recommendations were common. Santos et al. In addition to calcium, dietary iron intake also appears to be inadequate among adolescent athletes [ 38 ]. However, in the present study, the average amounts of iron ingested by most athletes of both sexes were in accordance with recommendations [ 23 ]. The habit of consuming small snacks by physically active individuals could help meet their energy and nutrient needs, according to Burke et al. The majority of adolescent athletes in this study concentrated their food intake in the three main meals breakfast, lunch and dinner. Considering the fact that participants reported a short interval between lunch and the start of training sessions, we suggest an evaluation of using snacks as part of the daily nutritional contribution, mainly during periods of training. According to Jacobson [ 42 ], young athletes normally receive guidance from an unreliable source when it comes to use of supplements, such as from trainers, friends, family, magazines, or television. Energy and hydroelectrolytic supplements were the most frequently used among study participants. Vitamin C supplements, multivitamins, and branched-chain amino acids were also mentioned by a smaller number of athletes. Vigorous and taxing physical activity together with reduced energy availability may cause adverse effects on pubertal development and reproductive function [ 43 ]. Therefore, accurate estimation of individual energy needs is needed to establish appropriate dietary guidelines [ 44 ]. In the present study, TEE was estimated by predictive equations. The findings of this work can contribute to awareness among young modern pentathletes of the importance of nutrition and the role of each nutrient, for adequate physical performance, muscular recovery, health preservation, and promoting growth and development. Our results will also help sports nutrition professionals in advising adolescent pentathletes. A main limitation of this study is that we were unable to obtain a homogeneous distribution of athletes at each stage of sexual maturity, so as to more accurately investigate the influence of this variable on eating habits. In addition, the analyses performed here might provide more useful information if conducted using a larger sample size. Further studies will be carried out that are focused on this sport, especially regarding the nutritional demands of athletes during each pentathlon event. The adolescent modern pentathlon athletes in this study had inadequate eating habits with respect to energy, carbohydrates, and calcium intake. Moreover, the majority of athletes made use of supplements, even without qualified nutritional counseling, and showed qualitative inadequacy in their eating habits, especially with regard to frequent consumption of soft drinks and low consumption of fruits and vegetables. Kelm J. Modern Pentathlon. In: Caine DJ, Harmer PA, Schiff MA, editors. 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