Team sport players in positions that cover significant distances within a game and who are required to be fast and agile are generally aided by a lighter and lean physique. Typically, the body fat levels of team sport players do not reach the low levels typical of endurance athletes such as runners, cyclists and triathletes.

However, recent observations among professional team sports have noted a reduction in body fat levels across players in general Duthie et al.

The requirement to wear lycra bodysuit uniforms in some team competitions has also contributed to an increased interest in loss of body fat among team players, although in this case it may be driven by aesthetic interests as much as by performance goals.

Table 2 summarizes the risk factors and strategies to manage unwanted gain of body fat among players in team sports. Recent research using tracer techniques has focused on the best feeding strategies following a bout of resistance exercise.

Various investigations have found that the maximal protein synthetic response is produced when resistance exercise is followed by the immediate intake of rapidly digested, highquality protein Tang et al. Despite the belief that large amounts of protein are needed for gains from resistance exercise, a dose—response study has found that the maximal synthetic response to a training bout was achieved with the intake of 20 to 25 g of high-quality protein following exercise Moore et al.

Over a hour recovery window, regular feeding i. every 3 hours of a moderate quantity [20 g] of rapidly digested whey protein will continue to promote high rates of muscle protein synthesis following resistance training Areta et al. As a general rule, including ˜0. Furthermore, a well-scheduled intake of high-quality protein foods is likely to restrict the loss of muscle mass and strength during recovery from injury Wall et al.

Table 2: Risk factors and strategies to manage unwanted gain of body fat among players in team sports adapted from Burke, Strategies to address risk factor. Substantial reduction in activity levels during the off-season or injury.

Poor nutrition knowledge and practical skills leading to poor food choices, convenient low-quality ready-prepared meals and reliance on takeaway foods. supermarket tours, cooking classes to teach domestic skills and knowledge of sound choices in restaurants and takeaway outlets.

Chaotic meal patterns and displaced meals leading to poor awareness of actual food intake in a day. Residential situation e. college, foster family exposing athlete to inappropriate food choices and food volume. Constant travel, leading to disturbance of home routine; game schedule of frequent matches where emphasis is on fuelling and recovery.

Regular excessive intake of alcohol, often in conjunction with inappropriate eating. There are few studies of the fuel demands of team sport players during training or competition, with the available evidence being focused on the match play of soccer players.

Significant muscle glycogen depletion has been shown to occur over the course of a football match Ekblom, ; Saltin, ; Krustrup et al. The current guidelines for carbohydrate intakes amended to suit a range of needs for team players are summarized in Table 3.

As such, team sport athletes should be appropriately educated to manipulate their daily fuel intake to match the demands of training and competition.

Higher intakes may be required for younger team players to accommodate for growth and development, for leaner players with high daily energy requirements and for athletes striving to gain lean muscle mass to maintain a positive energy balance.

The lower-range carbohydrate intake recommendations are likely suitable for team players with high body fat levels given recommendations are expressed relative to body mass , for athletes returning from injury or on a break where training loads are reduced, or for players striving to reduce body fat levels during a general conditioning phase of training.

The high-carbohydrate diet did not increase the ability of players to shoot or dribble. Several explanations are possible: muscle glycogen depletion may not impair the ability of the player to execute game skills; alternative fatigue mechanisms such as dehydration or increased lactate production may be causative factors in the reduction in skill performance; or the treadmill protocol employed failed to induce a degree of glycogen depletion or fatigue large enough to cause a significant fall in skill performance Abt et al.

Distance skated, number of shifts skated, amount of time skated within shifts, and skating speed were all increased in the carbohydrate-loaded players compared with the mixed diet group, with the differences being most marked in the third period Akermark et al.

There are few studies of actual glycogen restoration following real or simulated competition in team sport; these are limited to soccer and show divergent results with both success Zehnder et al.

Potential reasons for failure to refuel effectively after competition include interference with glycogen storage due to the presence of muscle damage arising from eccentric activities Zehnder et al.

Current sports nutrition guidelines for everyday eating recommend that athletes consume adequate carbohydrate to meet the fuel requirements of their training programme, thus allowing training sessions to be undertaken with high-carbohydrate availability for review, see Burke, There are a number of potential ways to reduce carbohydrate availability for training, including doing two training sessions in close succession without opportunity for refuelling Hansen et al.

As reviewed by Burke , it should be pointed out that these strategies do not involve a low carbohydrate intake per se, or follow the currently topical low-carbohydrate high-fat diet.

Furthermore, they do not advocate low carbohydrate availability for all training sessions; indeed, studies report a reduction in selfchosen training intensity with " train low " sessions, which may account for a failure to achieve an overall improvement in performance Yeo et al.

Morton and colleagues Morton et al. Further work, including a more sophisticated approach to periodizing carbohydrate availability around different training sessions, is needed. These include inadequate fuel and fluid status; factors that can be addressed by the intake of appropriate drinks and sports products during a match.

Given the intermittent nature of team sports, they often offer frequent opportunities to ingest fluid and energy during breaks between periods, time-outs, substitutions or breaks in play see Burke, Drinking opportunities for selected team sports are summarized in Table 4.

Fluids must be consumed at sidelines; players must not leave field. Third-time breaks, time-outs, substitutions, pauses in play. Half-time break, substitutions, pauses in play. Trainers may run onto field with fluid bottles during pauses in play.

Half-time break, pauses in play drink must be taken at sideline. First to 3 sets, limited substitutions, time-outs. Sweat rates for team sport players are underpinned by the intermittent high-intensity work patterns, which are variable and unpredictable between and within team sports.

Even from match to match, the same player can experience different workloads and sweat losses due to different game demands and overall playing time. Fluid losses are also affected by variable climate and environmental conditions in which team sports are played e. outdoor vs.

indoor; on sunny beach vs. on ice and in some sports the requirement to wear protective clothing, including body pads and helmets. Garth and Burke recently reviewed fluid intake practices of athletes participating in various sporting events. They noted that most of the available literature involves observations from football soccer games, and there is little information on practices on other team sports, such as rugby league, rugby union, cricket, basketball and beach volleyball for review, see Garth and Burke, Studies that have included a test of pre-game hydration status in conjunction with fluid balance testing found that a subset of players reported on match day with urine samples consistent with dehydration.

Overall, mean BM changes over a match ranged from ˜1 to 1. One study reported that the total volume of fluid consumed by players was not different when they were provided with sports drink and water compared with water alone.

In addition, mean heart rate, perceived exertion, serum aldosterone, osmolality, sodium and cortisol responses during the test were higher when no fluid was ingested.

Nevertheless, Edwards and Noakes suggest that dehydration is only an outcome of complex physiological control operating a pacing plan and no single metabolic factor is causal of fatigue in elite soccer.

The subjects were able to continue running longer when fed the carbohydrate-electrolyte solution. Ali et al. The carbohydrate-electrolyte solution enabled subjects with compromised glycogen stores to better maintain skill and sprint performance than when ingesting fluid alone.

Linseman et al. Skating speed and puck handling performance during the game, as well as post-game skating speed were improved with ingestion of the carbohydrate-electroltye solution.

Their results showed that perceived activation was lower without carbohydrate ingestion during the last 30 min of exercise, and this was accompanied by lowered plasma glucose concentrations.

In the carbohydrate trial, RPE was maintained in the last 30 minutes of exercise but carried on increasing in the PLA trial. These authors concluded that carbohydrate ingestion during prolonged high-intensity exercise elicits an enhanced perceived activation profile that may impact upon task persistence and performance.

On a third trial, the same volume of carbohydrate-electrolyte was consumed in smaller volumes at 0, 15, 30, 45, 60, and 75 minutes. This manipulation of the timing and volume of ingestion elicited similar metabolic responses without affecting exercise performance.

However, consuming fluid in small volumes reduced the sensation of gut fullness Clarke et al. Indeed, gastric emptying of liquids is slowed during brief intermittent high-intensity exercise compared with rest or steady-state moderate exercise Leiper et al.

These products are summarized in Table 5. Among the proposed nutritional ergogenic supplements, creatine Cr is the one that has been investigated the most in relation with team sports, given that its purported ergogenic action i.

enhanced recovery of the phosphocreatine power system matches the activity profilent of team sports. Various investigations indicate that both acute and chronic Cr supplementation may contribute to improved training and competition performance in team sports e.

Ahmun et al. Table 5: Sports foods and dietary supplements that are of likely benefit to team sport players adapted from Burke, However, conflicting results are not lacking in the literature Paton et al.

Beta-alanine supplementation, to increase muscle stores of the intracellular buffer carnosine, may also provide benefits and requires further study using protocols suited to team sports Derave et al.

Colostrum supplementation has conflicting reports with respect to its effects on recovery and illness Shing et al. Beetroot juice, a source of nitrate, may enhance sports performance by mechanisms including an increase in exercise economy Wylie et al.

Holway and Spriet summarized the dietary intake studies of team sport athletes published over the past 30 years. It is difficult to make broad generalizations as data are skewed to certain team sports football, basketball and volleyball with little or no contemporary information reported on others e.

cricket, rugby union, water polo, hockey. However, weighted averages for energy intake were Relative to body mass, male team sport athletes reported eating an average of 5.

This is less that reported for athletes engaged in individual team sports Burke, Not surprisingly, larger athletes were reported to consume more energy and pre-season intakes were greater than in-season intakes, perhaps to accommodate the additional conditioning work incorporated into the preparatory training phase.

Some evidence suggests the dietary quality of team sport athletes is less than what is reported for athletes involved in individual sports Clark et al. For instance, alcohol intakes of team sport athletes appear higher than other athlete groups Van Erp-Baart et al.

The team culture of celebrating a win and commiserating a loss often leads to excessive consumption of alcohol during the post-game period. Implications of such behaviour include a decrease in muscle protein synthesis Parr et al.

These issues need to be considered by sports nutrition professionals consulting with team sport athletes and highlight the need for a thorough dietary review of individual player habits and the team culture.

Implementation of appropriate systems including a performance kitchen can capture the imagination of players around key nutrition principles, while enhancing team culture.

Akermark C, Jacobs I, Rasmusson M, Karlsson J. Ali A, Williams C, Nicholas CW, Foskett A. Areta JL, Burke LM, Ross ML, Camera DM, West DW, Broad EM, Jeacocke NA, Moore DR, Stellingwerff T, Phillips SM, Hawley JA, Coffey VG.

Backhouse SH, Ali A, Biddle SJ, Williams C. Balsom PD, Wood K, Olsson P, Ekblom B. Bangsbo J, Norregaard L, Thorsoe F. Bangsbo J. Barr, McGee. Bishop D, Claudius B. Burke L. In Can J Appl Physiol. Human Kinetics Publishers: Champaign. pp In order for the athlete to train and compete at their optimum they must understand the role of different foods in the healthy functioning of the body, a general idea of weight management and how to lose, maintain or gain weight where necessary.

Whilst all macro-nutrients and micro-nutrients are essential, in terms of recovering after an intense session or competition, carbohydrates and protein are key. Post workout is prime time for glycogen refuelling due to hypersensitivity to insulin.

Research suggests the best way to induce post-exercise anabolism is to combine high GI carbohydrates, whey protein hydrolysate and leucine. Aim for:. However in terms of maintaining lean muscle tissue it is also critical that an athlete is meeting their energy expenditure through food intake.

Unless the athlete is specifically aiming to cut or lose weight, they must ensure their high caloric needs are met through good quality foods.

If an athlete isn't meeting their energy needs the body will most likely start using protein as a fuel for energy and thus it will not be readily available for muscle repair and recovery.

Understanding our energy requirements is important so that we can ensure we are re-fuelling the body suitably. What a lot of people don't realise is that our basal metabolic rate is the key determinant of many calories we need to consume.

Basal Metabolic Rate BMR is the energy expenditure of the human body in calories through daily human processes, not taking into account physical activity. We can get an approximation of our BMR by using equation below:. Harris Benedict Equation. For men: For women: 9. The table below can then be used to calculate Total energy requirements.

If we are an athlete trying to lose weight then we should be aiming for less than calories below our TEE on a daily basis. If we are an athlete try to gain weight then we should be aiming for approximately calories in excess of TEE on a daily basis. Obviously that is averaged across the week and it doesn't have to be calories exactly each day, one day you might only be in a calorie deficit, but the following day you make it up by reaching a calorie deficit.

However, for health and human homeostasis purposes it is recommended that the strategies we use are safe and balanced rather than extreme, thus making it better to try and stick closer to a calorie deficit or gain consistently. Some studies support the Paleo diet for its positive effects on metabolic markers but there is little evidence supporting actual improvements in physical performance in the athletic population Escobar et al.

Similarly, PRO supplementation also becomes a significant challenge for athletes following the Paleo diet with the elimination of dairy.

Although a single sprint relies mostly on anaerobic metabolic pathways, repeated sprints significantly increase the demand for the aerobic metabolism during the later stages of exercise Mata et al. CHO availability is critical for maintaining both aerobic and anaerobic energy pathways as CHO is still a more efficient substrate than FAT, even in aerobic metabolic pathways.

Most the studies conducted regarding the Paleo diet, are geared toward endurance and intermittent athletes who have a high reliance on both the anerobic and aerobic energy systems, yet they do not focus on protein needs for these athletes. Although the elimination of milk proteins may make protein supplementation difficult, the Paleo diet is rich in egg protein which is thought to be an ideal protein due to its amino acid profile.

Likewise, the diet is abundant in meat proteins which allows athletes to get plenty of selenium, iron, vitamin A, and B12 in addition to a high leucine content Smith et al.

The tenets of the Paleo diet stem from the archaeological record and anthropological research based on which foods were available to humans during the period in history where most humans subsisted on hunting and gathering Eaton, It is speculated that Paleolithic ancestors obtained much of their calcium through wild plants which contain Similarly, paleolithic humans were said to have a diet high in potassium content and lower sodium than modern Americans who may have an imbalance in these electrolytes Eaton, The Paleo diet, while low in high CHO availability CHO, provide the user with multiple CHO sources and potentially appropriate CHO intake.

However, the athlete must be careful to consider the nutrient timing of CHO and the energy availability of the CHO sources. The Paleo Diet can provide a great solution for weight loss and promotion of a whole food rich diet for many of its users.

Similarly, despite the elimination of milk proteins from the diet, it is possible to meet PRO needs with lean meat sources encouraged by this diet with careful planning.

Equally, the Paleo diet may play a role in a periodized nutrition plan for a strength and power athlete if more strictly adhered to during the off-season and restrictions relaxed during their sport season when CHO are much higher.

If you are interested in another great post on diets for athletes, Check out this Guide to Vegan and Vegetarian Dieting for Athletes. Bryngelsson, S. Popular diets, body weight and health: Scandinavian Journal of Nutrition , 49 1 , 15— Bujko, J. The question of ergogenic potential of the Paleolithic diet.

Trends in Sports Sciences , 21 4. Bytomski, J. Fueling for Performance. Sports Health: A Multidisciplinary Approach , 10 1 , 47— Campbell, B. International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: Protein and exercise. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition , 4 1 , 8.

Challa, H. Paleolithic Diet. Gov; StatPearls Publishing. Chang, C. Low-carbohydrate-high-fat diet: Can it help exercise performance? Journal of Human Kinetics , 56 1 , 81— Cintineo, H. Effects of protein supplementation on performance and recovery in resistance and endurance training.

Frontiers in Nutrition , 5. D Hills Jr, R. Guide to popular diets, food choices, and their health outcome.

This Site. Google Scholar. Louise M. Burke Louise M. c Sports Nutrition, Australian Institute of Sport, Canberra, A. Ann Nutr Metab 57 Suppl. Article history Published Online:. Cite Icon Cite. toolbar search Search Dropdown Menu.

toolbar search search input Search input auto suggest. Table 1 Factors related to nutrition that could produce fatigue or suboptimal performance in team sports.

View large. View Large. Table 2 Risk factors and strategies to manage unwanted gain of body fat among players in team sports adapted from Burke [24]. Table 3 Fuel requirements for training and match play adapted for team players adapted from Burke and Cox [ 39 ]. Table 4 Opportunities to drink during a match play in selected team sports adapted from Burke and Hawley [32].

Table 5 Sports foods and supplements that are of likely benefit to team sport players adapted from Burke [24]. The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Hawley J, Burke L: Peak Performance: Training and Nutritional Strategies for Sport. St Leonards, Allen and Unwin, Reilly T, Thomas V: A motion analysis of work-rate in different positional roles in professional football match-play. J Hum Mov Studies ;— Spencer M, Bishop D, Dawson B, Goodman C: Physiological and metabolic responses of repeated-sprint activities: specific to field-based team sports.

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London, Spon, , pp — Tang JE, Moore DR, Kujbida GW, Tarnopolsky MA, Phillips SM: Ingestion of whey hydrolysate, casein, or soy protein isolate: effects on mixed muscle protein synthesis at rest and following resistance exercise in young men.

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Abt G, Zhou S, Weatherby R: The effect of a high-carbohydrate diet on the skill performance of midfield soccer players after intermittent treadmill exercise.

J Sci Med Sport ;— Akermark C, Jacobs I, Rasmusson M, Karlsson J: Diet and muscle glycogen concentration in relation to physical performance in Swedish elite ice hockey players. Int J Sport Nutr ;— Zehnder M, Rico-Sanz J, Kuhne G, Boutellier U: Resynthesis of muscle glycogen after soccer specific performance examined by 13 C-magnetic resonance spectroscopy in elite players.

Eur J Appl Physiol ;— Jacobs I, Westlin N, Karlsson J, Rasmusson M, Houghton B: Muscle glycogen and diet in elite soccer players. Zehnder M, Muelli M, Buchli R, Kuehne G, Boutellier U: Further glycogen decrease during early recovery after eccentric exercise despite a high carbohydrate intake.

Eur J Nutr ;— Burke L: Field-based team sports; in Burke L ed : Practical Sports Nutrition. Champaign, Human Kinetics Publishers, , pp — Burke LM: Fuelling strategies to optimise performance — Training high or training low?

Scand J Med Sci Sports ;20 Suppl 2 : 48— Baar K, McGee SL: Optimizing training adaptations by manipulating glycogen. Eur J Sport Sci ;— Hansen AK, Fischer CP, Plomgaard P, Andersen JL, Saltin B, Pedersen BK: Skeletal muscle adaptation: training twice every second day vs training once daily.

Yeo WK, Paton CD, Garnham AP, Burke LM, Carey AL, Hawley JA: Skeletal muscle adaptation and performance responses to once a day versus twice every second day endurance training regimens. Cox GR, Clark SA, Cox AJ, Halson SL, Hargreaves M, Hawley JA, Jeacocke N, Snow RJ, Yeo WK, Burke LM: Daily training with high carbohydrate availability increases exogenous carbohydrate oxidation during endurance cycling.

Hulston CJ, Venables MC, Mann CH, Martin C, Philp A, Baar K, Jeukendrup AE: Training with low muscle glycogen enhances fat metabolism in well-trained cyclists. Morton JP, Croft L, Bartlett JD, Maclaren DP, Reilly T, Evans L, McArdle A, Drust B: Reduced carbohydrate availability does not modulate training-induced heat shock protein adaptations but does upregulate oxidative enzyme activity in human skeletal muscle.

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Maughan RJ, Watson P, Evans GH, Broad N, Shirreffs SM: Water balance and salt losses in competitive football. Mohr M, Mujika I, Santisteban J, Randers MB, Bischof R, Solano R, Hewitt A, Zubillaga A, Peltola E, Krustrup P: Examination of fatigue patterns in elite soccer — A multi-experimental approach.

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Edwards AM, Noakes TD: Dehydration: cause of fatigue or sign of pacing in elite soccer? Burke L, Cox G: The Complete Guide to Food for Sports Performance, ed 3.

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J Strength Cond Res ;— Cornish SM, Chilibeck PD, Burke DG: The effect of creatine monohydrate supplementation on sprint skating in ice-hockey players. J Sports Med Phys Fitness ;— Cox G, Mujika I, Tumilty D, Burke L: Acute creatine supplementation and performance during a field test simulating match play in elite female soccer players.

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Derave W, Everaert I, Beeckman S, Baguet A: Muscle carnosine metabolism and beta-alanine supplementation in relation to exercise and training. Shing CM, Hunter DC, Stevenson LM: Bovine colostrum supplementation and exercise performance: potential mechanisms. Hofman Z, Smeets R, Verlaan G, Lugt R, Verstappen PA: The effect of bovine colostrum supplementation on exercise performance in elite field hockey players.

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A necessary and accurate approach. Can J Appl Physiol ;— Ruiz F, Irazusta A, Gil S, Irazusta J, Casis L, Gil J: Nutritional intake in soccer players of different ages. Garrido G, Webster AL, Chamorro M: Nutritional adequacy of different menu settings in elite Spanish adolescent soccer players.

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Suggested Reading Changes in Tissue Glycogen of Recovering Asphyxiated Newborn Monkeys: Glycogen Response of Brain, Heart and Other Organs to Total Asphyxia Biologia Neonatorum September, Whilst all macro-nutrients and micro-nutrients are essential, in terms of recovering after an intense session or competition, carbohydrates and protein are key.

Post workout is prime time for glycogen refuelling due to hypersensitivity to insulin. Research suggests the best way to induce post-exercise anabolism is to combine high GI carbohydrates, whey protein hydrolysate and leucine.

Aim for:. However in terms of maintaining lean muscle tissue it is also critical that an athlete is meeting their energy expenditure through food intake.

Unless the athlete is specifically aiming to cut or lose weight, they must ensure their high caloric needs are met through good quality foods. If an athlete isn't meeting their energy needs the body will most likely start using protein as a fuel for energy and thus it will not be readily available for muscle repair and recovery.

Understanding our energy requirements is important so that we can ensure we are re-fuelling the body suitably. What a lot of people don't realise is that our basal metabolic rate is the key determinant of many calories we need to consume.

Basal Metabolic Rate BMR is the energy expenditure of the human body in calories through daily human processes, not taking into account physical activity. We can get an approximation of our BMR by using equation below:.

Harris Benedict Equation. For men: For women: 9. The table below can then be used to calculate Total energy requirements. If we are an athlete trying to lose weight then we should be aiming for less than calories below our TEE on a daily basis.

If we are an athlete try to gain weight then we should be aiming for approximately calories in excess of TEE on a daily basis.

Obviously that is averaged across the week and it doesn't have to be calories exactly each day, one day you might only be in a calorie deficit, but the following day you make it up by reaching a calorie deficit. However, for health and human homeostasis purposes it is recommended that the strategies we use are safe and balanced rather than extreme, thus making it better to try and stick closer to a calorie deficit or gain consistently.

As a strength and power athlete we must also consider that if we are in a calorie deficit then it is likely we will need to further increase our protein intake to ensure that we are maintaining lean muscle mass.

Nutrition plays an absolutely critical role in the overall health and performance of an athlete. You wouldn't fill up a Ferrari with the wrong fuel, and the human body is exactly the same. If you want to recover and perform at your peak you must be providing the human mind and body with the correct fuel.

At its most basic level nutrition is the same across all humans - eat a well balanced diet containing all 3 macro-nutrients fat, carbohydrate, protein from good quality unprocessed food sources as well as at the very minimum meeting micro-nutrient vitamins, minerals and antioxidants minimum intakes.

Despite this, for athletes wishing to recover, repair and perform nutrition can become highly specialised based on a number of factors:. Mass of the individual. Age of the individual. Environmental factors heat, wind, humidity.

Type of physical training engaged in. Type of sport competing in. Goals of the athlete.