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Ingestion of moderate doses caffeine only decreased RT on the Stroop task, under the incongruent conditions. After consumption of low doses of caffeine, participants in our study showed decreased RT, accompanied by a significant decrease in interference effects. These findings are similar to those reported by Kenemans et al.

Similar to the present study, Souissi et al. Moreover, Ali et al. This discrepancy in results may reflect methodological differences related to the specific protocol used or the gender of the study participants.

Moreover, we observed that high doses of caffeine had no effect on cognitive performance. One possible explanation for this finding is that the ingestion of high doses of caffeine induces side effects such as gastrointestinal upset, nervousness, mental confusion, and inability to focus Graham and Spriet, Our data suggest that ingestion of low or moderate doses of caffeine ingestion decreases interference with successful performance on the Stroop task.

Previous studies have reported the activation of the lateral prefrontal cortex LPFC upon execution of the Stroop task. Banich et al. This may result in greater activation of relevant LPFC in the incongruent condition compared with the congruent condition.

Milham et al. Additionally, according to Krompinger and Simons , the DLPFC resolves conflicts that occur during information processing of incongruent stimuli during the Stroop task. Therefore, the Stroop performance is more related to activation of the DLPFC. In the present study, we found a significant main effect of condition for the mean HbO of the DLPFC: the mean HbO in the incongruent condition was higher than in the congruent condition.

These Stroop effect findings are similar to those in previous functional NIRS fNIRS studies, which suggested that executive functioning is associated with activation of DLPFC Xu et al.

Interestingly, we found different results with previous two fNIRS studies Xu et al. But DLPFC activation in the present study is consistent with that of a previous meta-analysis review on Stroop task-related fMRI, in which FPA and VLPFC also could not be significantly activated Nee et al.

Thus, more fNIRS or fMRI neuroimaging studies are needed to clarify the roles of FPA and VLPFC in the Stroop task. That caffeine improved the Stroop task performance may be related to activation of LPFC.

Combining the above-mentioned opposite pattern in which the mean HbO of DLPFC in the incongruent condition was higher than that in the congruent condition, indicated that mean HbO of LPFC, especially DLPFC, has been increased during Stroop-interference processing in the incongruent condition, whereas following caffeine ingestion, the significant reduction was found in the activation of LPFC.

These results demonstrate that under high cognitive processing, the effects of caffeine on LPFC activation have been attenuated by higher demanding processing, whereas under low cognitive tasks, the effects of caffeine on LPFC activation are more pronounced, because the congruent condition in Stroop task involved less demanding processing.

The present results provide new evidences for previous studies that caffeine improvement of brain activation is induced more easily at the moment of the lowest values Niioka and Sasaki, ; Souissi et al. In the present study, under the congruent condition, no doses of caffeine ingestion affect the mean HbO.

These results contrast with those of previous studies, which found that ingestion of 75 or mg of caffeine was associated with decreased mean HbO on the Stroop task Niioka and Sasaki, ; Dodd et al.

This discrepancy in results may reflect methodological differences related to the specific protocol used. Therefore, use of the Stroop task should be standardized in future studies for investigating the effects of drugs on cerebral hemodynamic responses.

These results are consistent with those of a previous fMRI study, which showed that ingestion of low-dose caffeine enhanced neuro-activation in the frontal cortex Diukova et al. The increase in mean HbO during the Stroop task observed in this study after ingestion of low-dose caffeine may be related to an increase in regional cerebral blood volume rCBV.

Caffeine acts as an adenosine receptor antagonist and consequently as an excitatory neuro-stimulant, thus enhancing neural activity Dunwiddie and Masino, and increasing rCBV. These findings are in line with a report by Higashi et al. Caffeine also regulates cerebral perfusion and acts as a vasoconstrictor, decreasing CBF via the blockade of A2A and A2B receptors Laurienti et al.

Our observation that ingestion of low-dose caffeine increases mean HbO suggests that caffeine increases in rCBF via exciting neuro-stimulants outweigh caffeine decreases in rCBF via decreasing CBF. Moderate-to-high doses of caffeine administrated 1 h before and during exercise have been known to increase endurance athletic performance.

In contrast, recent evidence has shown an ergogenic effect of low and extremely low doses of caffeine taken late during a period of prolonged exercise Hogervorst et al.

Furthermore, low doses of caffeine do not affect peripheral whole-body responses to exercise and are associated with few, if any, side effects; Spriet suggested that low doses of caffeine ingestion improve exercise performance In this study, we observed that ingestion of low-dose caffeine had greater effect on cognition and brain activation than had moderate and high doses, which means that low doses of caffeine have greater effect on stimulating the CNS.

The present study maintained a few limitations. We used G-power to estimate the sample size, and the numbers of subjects in this study met the minimum sample size requirements. However, more samples are needed in the future research so that the research results can be further verified and repeated.

In the double-blind designed study, it is best to ask subjects which dose they think they ingested in each trail after completion of all groups and to outline why they identified which trial as which.

However, in the present study, we did not note the responses of the subjects, so we could not assess the efficacy of blinding.

Although four conditions in the present study are difficultly for participants to identify, we should value the assessment of blinding in future studies. Moreover, only Stroop task was used to measure executive function.

There are other cognitive tasks on executive function, such as n-back and switching task. Therefore, more tasks are need to measure to ensure effects of various doses of caffeine ingestion on executive function in the future. These results demonstrate that ingestion of low-dose caffeine has greater effects on cognition and brain activation than moderate and high doses of caffeine, suggesting that low-dose caffeine may be a selective supplement in enhancing executive function and prefrontal activities.

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation, to any qualified researcher. The study followed the ethical guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki and was approved by the local Ethics Committee at the Shanghai University in Sport, Shanghai, China No.

XZ and YD conceived and supervised the study and designed the experiments. BZ and YL carried out the experiments. YL and XW analyzed the data. BZ wrote the manuscript. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.

This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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Attentional selection and the processing of task-irrelevant information: insights from fMRI examinations of the Stroop task.

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