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Ross AC, Taylor CL, Yaktine AL, Del Valle HB editors. Washington, DC: National Academies Press Allen LH, Carriquiry AL, Murphy SP. Perspective: proposed harmonized nutrient reference values for populations.

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Biol Trace Elem Res. Balder HF, Vogel J, Jansen MCJF, Weijenberg MP, van den Brandt PA, Westenbrink S, et al. Heme and chlorophyll intake and risk of colorectal cancer in the Netherlands cohort study. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. Lombardi-Boccia G, Martinez-Dominguez B, Aguzzi A.

Total heme and non-heme iron in raw and cooked meats. J Food Sci. Pourkhalili A, Mirlohi M, Rahimi E. Heme iron content in lamb meat is differentially altered upon boiling, grilling, or frying as assessed by four distinct analytical methods.

Sci World J. Kabat GC, Miller AB, Jain M, Rohan TE. A cohort study of dietary iron and heme iron intake and risk of colorectal cancer in women. Br J Cancer. Ronco A, Espinosa E, Calderon J.

Reno, NV: MedDocs Publishers LLC Kongkachuichai R, Napatthalung P, Charoensiri R. Heme and nonheme iron content of animal products commonly consumed in Thailand. J Food Composit Anal.

Taniguchi CN, Dobbs J, Dunn MA. Heme iron, non-heme iron, and mineral content of blood clams Anadara spp. compared to Manila clams V.

philippinarum , Pacific oysters C. gigas , and beef liver B. Ryckman T, Beal T, Nordhagen S, Chimanya K, Matji J. Affordability of nutritious foods for complementary feeding in Eastern and Southern Africa. Hall KD, Guo J, Courville AB, Boring J, Brychta R, Chen KY, et al.

Effect of a plant-based, low-fat diet versus an animal-based, ketogenic diet on ad libitum energy intake. Nat Med. Ortenzi F, Beal T. Priority micronutrient density of foods for complementary feeding of young children 6—23 months in South and Southeast Asia.

Front Nutr. Ryckman T, Beal T, Nordhagen S, Murira Z, Torlesse H. Affordability of nutritious foods for complementary feeding in South Asia. Beal T. Achieving dietary micronutrient adequacy in a finite world.

One Earth. LaCanne CE, Lundgren JG. Regenerative agriculture: merging farming and natural resource conservation profitably. Kremen C, Miles A. Ecosystem services in biologically diversified versus conventional farming systems: benefits, externalities, and trade-offs.

Ecol Soc. Gephart JA, Henriksson PJG, Parker RWR, Shepon A, Gorospe KD, Bergman K, et al. Environmental performance of blue foods. Poore J, Nemecek T. Fenster TLD, LaCanne CE, Pecenka JR, Schmid RB, Bredeson MM, Busenitz KM, et al. Defining and validating regenerative farm systems using a composite of ranked agricultural practices.

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Environ Res Lett. Nyirenda D, Musukwa M, Mugode R, Shindano J. Zambia Food Composition Tables. Lusaka: National Food and Nutrition Commission Drewnowski A, Smith J, Fulgoni VL. The new hybrid nutrient density score NRFh tested in relation to affordable nutrient density and healthy eating index analyses of NHANES data — Keywords : nutrient density, micronutrient deficiencies, animal-source foods, organs, shellfish, fish, dark green leafy vegetables, ruminant meat.

Citation: Beal T and Ortenzi F Priority Micronutrient Density in Foods. Received: 01 November ; Accepted: 15 February ; Published: 07 March Copyright © Beal and Ortenzi.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License CC BY. The risks: Doctors once believed that eating seeds could lead to diverticulitis, an infection of diverticula pouchlike structures that sometimes form in the muscular wall of the colon and bulge outward.

However, the link between diverticulitis and seed consumption is unproven. In fact, seeds are rich in fiber, which is crucial for gut health. Try these: Chia seeds, flaxseeds, hemp seeds, pumpkin seeds, sesame seeds, and sunflower seeds.

Adding nuts and seeds to your diet is simple: stay within the serving guidelines of an ounce or two per day, and eat the ones you like. Sprinkle a few into salads, sauces, vegetables, or whole grains such as brown rice or quinoa.

Put nuts and seeds in a stir-fry. Or include some nut flour in baking recipes. No matter how you enjoy them, you'll wind up with extra flavor and texture in meals and the added benefits of better nutrition. Fat and calorie content per ounce of selected nuts and seeds.

Nut or seed. Calories per ounce. Therefore, nuts should be part of a healthy diet. The Australian Dietary Guidelines External Link recommend 30 grams of nuts on most days of the week.

The effect of seeds on body weight has not been researched extensively but is likely to be similar to nuts as they are also high in protein, healthy fat and fibre. Including nuts and seeds as part of your diet has been linked with a lower risk of heart disease.

Although high in fats, nuts and seeds are good sources of healthy fats such as monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats , and are low in unhealthy saturated fats.

LDL cholesterol can add to the build-up of plaque fatty deposits in your arteries, which can increase your risk of coronary heart disease. Nuts and seeds also help to maintain healthy blood vessels and blood pressure partly through their arginine content , and reduce inflammation in the body as they are high in antioxidants.

The Australian Dietary Guidelines External Link recommend 30 grams of nuts on most days of the week for adults. As all nuts have a similar nutrient content, a wide variety of nuts can be included as part of a healthy diet. This equal to about:.

Different types of nuts have slight differences in their vitamin and mineral content, so eating a variety of nuts will increase your levels of various nutrients.

Given that nuts and seeds have comparable nutrient composition and health benefits, consider seeds as a nut replacement in case of nut allergy see information below. Whole nuts are not suitable for children under 3 years because they may cause choking if they are not chewed well.

All tree nuts, peanuts and seeds may trigger life-threatening allergic reactions anaphylaxis in those with nut allergies.

There is no cure for allergies, so if you or your child have a nut or seed allergy, avoid nuts, seeds and foods containing them until you have seen a doctor who specialises in food allergies an allergist. They will conduct medically supervised food tests to find out which nuts or seeds you may be allergic to.

Nuts and seeds should be introduced to infants and young children in the form of butters or pastes, to prevent choking. Do not give whole nuts to your child until they are 3 years.

Always read food labels to check nuts and seeds are not present. This page has been produced in consultation with and approved by:.

They also provide vitamin K and minerals like magnesium and manganese. Pecans are mild nuts that are popular for cakes, pies, and salad dishes. One ounce 28 grams of roasted pecans provides :.

A small 8-week study in 56 people at risk of heart disease demonstrated that those who ate pecans daily had significant reductions in LDL cholesterol and triglyceride levels, compared with a control group.

Pecans contain a variety of beneficial nutrients, including zinc and manganese. Among other benefits, they may promote heart health.

Macadamia nuts have a buttery texture and contain an array of nutrients. Just 1 ounce These nuts are high in healthy fats and lower in carbs than many nuts, making them a popular choice for those on low-carb diets.

A review of 61 clinical trials showed that eating tree nuts, including macadamia nuts, may help reduce LDL cholesterol, triglyceride, and blood sugar levels. Macadamia nuts are high in healthy fats and other important nutrients like vitamin B1 and manganese.

Brazil nuts are a rich source of many nutrients, especially the mineral selenium. A 1-ounce gram serving contains :. These nuts are also one of the richest dietary sources of selenium , a nutrient your body needs for thyroid hormone production and DNA synthesis. Brazilian nuts may also have anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects.

Brazil nuts are an excellent source of selenium, a nutrient that serves as an antioxidant and is necessary for thyroid health. Hazelnuts are highly nutritious, packing healthy fats, protein, and fiber. Only 1 ounce 28 grams contains :.

A review of 9 studies also suggests that regularly eating hazelnuts may help reduce heart disease risk factors like elevated LDL cholesterol and total cholesterol. Hazelnuts, which are a good source of nutrients like vitamin E and manganese, may reduce certain heart disease risk factors. While peanuts technically belong to the legume family , they have a nutrient profile similar to that of tree nuts, as well as comparable health benefits and related culinary uses.

One ounce Peanuts are a rich source of plant protein, which may help you feel full. Some studies suggest that peanuts may also help lower the risk of cardiovascular disease, coronary heart disease, and stroke.

Peanuts, which are technically legumes, provide several B vitamins and may help reduce your risk of heart disease. The best way to eat nuts is to eat them whole without added salt and sugar.

That said, consume them in moderation at a serving of 1 oz, as they are high in calories. All nuts tend to be high in calories per serving, but peanuts and pistachios have slightly less.

Hazelnuts and almonds have less saturated fat than other nut types. Macadamia nuts have the most calories, and Brazil nuts have the most saturated fats of all the nut types.

When eaten as part of a nutrient-dense diet, they may help reduce your risk of heart disease and support immune health, among other benefits.

Plus, nuts are versatile and delicious. You can enjoy them on their own or pair them with other nutritious foods like fruits and vegetables. As such, be sure to read food labels carefully. Our experts continually monitor the health and wellness space, and we update our articles when new information becomes available.

VIEW ALL HISTORY. Macadamia nuts have a tasty, butter-like flavor and pack multiple nutrients. Here are 10 health and nutrition benefits of macadamia nuts. High in healthy fats and plant-based protein but low in carbs, most nuts can fit into a low carb eating plan.

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Medically reviewed by Katherine Marengo LDN, R. Almonds Pistachios Walnuts Cashews Pecans Macadamia nuts Brazil nuts Hazelnuts Peanuts FAQs Takeaway Nuts may offer numerous health benefits, such as reducing your risk of heart disease and supporting your immune system.

Calories and grams needed to provide an average of one-third of recommended intakes of vitamin A, folate, vitamin B 12 , calcium, iron, and zinc for women of reproductive age. Hypothetical average requirements for mass are based on an energy density of 1.

AR, average requirement; Vit, vitamin. Most animal-source foods and DGLVs were top sources of two or more micronutrients. All foods contained at least a moderate density of at least one of the six micronutrients except for other vegetables; roots, tubers, and plantains; nuts; and refined grain products.

Figure 2. Aggregate and individual micronutrient density scores for women of reproductive age. prod, products; veg, vegetables.

Top iron sources included organs, bivalves, small dried fish, goat, and teff, each providing one-third of recommended iron intakes with less than one-sixth of ARs for energy and hypothetical ARs for mass Figures 2 , 3. Top vitamin A sources included liver including beef, goat, lamb, chicken, and pork liver , small dried fish, DGLVs, bivalves, eggs, cow milk, cheese, and vitamin A-rich fruits and vegetables.

Top calcium sources included small dried fish, DGLVs, bivalves, cow milk, canned fish with bones, cheese, goat milk, and yogurt. Top folate sources included liver, DGLVs, eggs, pulses, and quinoa. Finally, top vitamin B 12 sources included organs, small dried fish, bivalves, crustaceans, ruminant meat, eggs, milk, cheese, canned fish, pork, yogurt, and fresh fish.

Figure 3. Calories and grams needed to provide one-third of recommended iron intakes for women of reproductive age.

Micronutrient density scores may vary depending on the population, given differences in recommended nutrient intakes. The aggregate micronutrient density ratings remained similar for all other groups, with a few exceptions Figures 4 , 5 and Supplementary Figures 1 — 6. Cheese rated very high for children 2—4 years, adolescents, WRA, and pregnant women but high for adults.

Notably, vitamin A-rich fruits and vegetables and seeds rated high for children 2—4 years but low for all other groups. Canned fish without bones rated moderate for children 2—4 years, adolescents, and adults but low for WRA and pregnant women.

Quinoa rated moderate for children 2—4 years and adolescents but low for all other groups. Finally, teff rated low for pregnant women but moderate for all other groups. Figure 4. Figure 5. Mod, moderate; prod, products; veg, vegetables. There were many differences in ratings for specific micronutrients depending on the population, especially for iron and folate Figures 5 , 6 and Supplementary Figures 4 — 6.

Organs, bivalves, small dried fish, and goat were the only foods that rated as top iron sources for all population groups. For iron, DGLVs rated low for pregnant women but high for all other groups, while crustaceans rated low for pregnant women, moderate for children 2—4 years and WRA, and high for adolescents and adults.

Beef was a top source of iron for children 2—4 years, adolescents, and adults but rated high for WRA and pregnant women. For adults, teff, fonio, sorghum, pulses, and millet were all top iron sources, whereas they all rated low for pregnant women, except for teff and fonio, which rated moderate.

Further, quinoa, canned fish with bones, eggs, seeds, and pork also rated high for iron for adults, while they rated moderate quinoa, canned fish with bones, and eggs or low seeds and pork for WRA and low for pregnant women. In addition, several food groups presented moderate iron density for adults, including fresh fish, canned fish without bones, whole grains, and unrefined grain products, whereas they all rated low for both WRA and pregnant women.

Finally, for pregnant women, the only top folate sources were liver and pulses, whereas for adults and WRA top sources also included DGLVs and quinoa, with the addition of eggs for WRA and kidney including beef, lamb, and pork kidney , fonio, and teff for children 2—4 years and adolescents.

Figure 6. Our analysis has provided ratings of inherent food sources of multiple and individual micronutrients commonly lacking in diets, especially in LMICs, for population groups with increased needs and the broader adult population.

In general, animal-source foods and DGLVs are top sources of priority micronutrients. Interestingly, many foods commonly promoted as nutrient-dense, including most fruits and vegetables, nuts and seeds, whole grains and, even animal-source foods like chicken and canned fish without bones, are not particularly dense in bioavailable micronutrients commonly lacking in LMICs.

These foods, of course, provide important nutritional benefits beyond these specific nutrients. Indeed, priority micronutrients are just one of many important aspects contributing to overall diet quality, and foods presenting low density in priority micronutrients may be rich in other essential and non-essential beneficial compounds and can contribute to overall energy and protein requirements.

These findings have implications for how to address important micronutrient gaps in the general population through food-based interventions.

They are particularly relevant for populations with increased nutrient needs, such as pregnant women and WRA. We show that pregnant women and WRA need particularly nutrient dense foods to meet requirements and our analysis helps identify foods to prioritize.

Programs and policies seeking to address undernutrition through dietary interventions in the most vulnerable populations could be improved by promoting specific foods containing the highest densities in bioavailable micronutrients commonly lacking, such as organs, small dried fish, DGLVs, and bivalves.

For instance, policy makers and program managers could incentivize production of these foods to increase their availability and affordability, as well as adopt social protection policies and provide cash transfers to low-income households to purchase nutrient-dense foods.

In addition, they could establish nutrition education programs within schools and the public health system and implement social and behavior change communication campaigns through mass media, to sensitize the general population or targeted groups on the importance of regularly consuming these foods within the context of a broader healthy diet.

Similar policy and program implications have been identified in a related analysis that focused specifically on young children during the complementary feeding period in South and Southeast Asia and which found that organs, eggs, and bivalves had the highest densities of bioavailable micronutrients commonly lacking These findings also have important implications for vegetarian populations, since animal flesh foods are dense in priority micronutrients.

In addition to DGLVs, both eggs and dairy foods are excellent sources of priority micronutrients for lacto-ovo vegetarians. Fortunately, eggs and dairy foods are among the more affordable animal-source foods per unit priority nutrient density, although not as affordable as organs and small fish, and they are still often inaccessible or unaffordable for people with limited resources 32 , Importantly, DGLVs and pulses are accessible and affordable sources of several priority micronutrients in most populations 32 , Further, traditional grains, including teff, quinoa, fonio, and millet, are at least moderately dense in iron, zinc, and folate and can also make significant contributions to nutrient adequacy.

Lacto-ovo vegetarian diets rich in eggs, dairy, DGLVs, pulses, and traditional grains can provide adequate amounts of all six priority micronutrients.

Carefully constructed vegan diets could provide adequate amounts of all six priority micronutrients for the general population, except vitamin B 12 , which would need to be consumed through fortified foods or supplements. However, population groups with increased nutritional requirements, such as pregnant women and children during the complementary feeding period, following a vegan diet likely also need fortification or supplementation for other micronutrients, such as iron, in addition to vitamin B Importantly, to the extent possible, the pursuit of dietary nutrient adequacy for the global population should not come at the expense of increased environmental destruction.

There may be some inevitable trade-offs between achieving micronutrient adequacy and minimizing the environmental impact of diets, but there is great potential to improve the sustainability of all types of foods using productive regenerative practices suitable to local ecosystems 36 — Particular attention could be given to nutrient dense foods with the greatest potential for sustainable production.

For example, seaweeds, bivalves, and small fish are generally highly nutrient dense and sustainable to produce While there may be nutritional advantages of obtaining nutrients through foods 12 — 14 , the very high iron requirements of more than 1. Finally, plant-source foods generally have lower negative environmental impact than animal-source foods per unit protein, energy, or mass based on current production practices and existing metrics used to quantify environmental impact However, this generalization may not hold when considering the higher bioavailable nutrient density of many animal-source foods as shown in the present analysis and others 34 , 36 , or when considering regenerative production practices and metrics that holistically quantify their environmental impacts 37 , 38 , Our study has several strengths.

The methods are transparent and based on publicly available data, as has been recommended 42 , The food composition data is comprehensive and representative of diets in diverse contexts globally, unlike existing nutrient profiling systems, which are based solely on national food composition data, typically USDA FDC 42 , 43 , and we adjusted for differences in bioavailability of iron and zinc across foods.

Similarly, recommended intakes are based on dietary reference values that are appropriate for global populations, including LMICs, and were calculated for the general adult population as well as groups with increased needs.

Our ratings prioritize foods that are optimal sources of micronutrients known to be commonly lacking and causing significant health burdens in LMICs, in alignment with the recommendation to focus nutrient profiling models for LMICs on nutrient density of beneficial nutrients, rather than nutrients to limit Lastly, the results are organized in clear and simple visualizations which are easily interpretable by non-technical audiences, including decision makers.

We focused on inherent priority micronutrient density and bioavailability and did not include fortified foods or address the overall role of food and diets in nutrient adequacy, infectious diseases, and NCDs and their broader impact on the global burden of disease Other essential vitamins and minerals, including vitamin C, vitamin E, riboflavin, thiamin, niacin, potassium, and magnesium, can also be lacking in diets, but data is limited on how widespread these inadequacies are and their public health significance 1.

Moreover, adequate calories 45 , protein 46 , and essential amino acids 47 and fatty acids especially n-3 fatty acids 48 are also often lacking and critically important for health.

Finally, there are numerous compounds that are associated with increased risk of disease when consumed in excess, including sugar, sodium, trans fat, cosmetic additives, and contamination and biological hazards in unsafe food, among others, for which the type and level of processing often plays an important role 49 — Our analysis has important limitations.

Moreover, mineral densities have even been shown to vary geospatially within individual countries Since the exact nutrient densities of any given food and context are unknown, we chose to use aggregate values to smooth out these variations, which contributes to the added value of our global food composition database.

Second, in addition to significant differences across FCTs, there is sometimes high nutrient-density variance across foods within food groups, meaning that the ranking of a food group as a whole might not reflect the micronutrient density of the most or least nutrient-dense foods included.

However, we chose to maintain these levels of aggregation because our selected food groups are more likely to be targeted in programming and policies than individual foods and match more closely with food groups in upcoming global diet quality monitoring data 53 , Third, country and regional FCTs only included a limited set of commonly consumed foods, which limited the breadth of foods included in our aggregated food composition database.

For instance, we were unable to analyze many nutrient-dense wild or indigenous vegetables, nuts, seeds, pulses, and insects, or novel foods like ground eggshells. Fourth, while we adjusted for bioavailability of iron and zinc, actual bioavailability depends on the genetics and micronutrient status of the individual and their overall diet, including a broad set of enhancers and inhibitors.

Finally, ratings are sensitive to categorical thresholds for quantities of calories and grams, which requires some attention when interpreting results, since foods near the thresholds could have been rated differently with only small changes in nutrient densities.

Some of the differences in ratings across population groups could thus be due to small differences in nutrient densities for foods near thresholds. These ratings are most applicable for populations in LMICs suffering from widespread micronutrient deficiencies.

However, for population groups with increased needs in HICs, such as pregnant women and WRA, who may often be deficient in micronutrients such as iron, zinc, and folate, these results can also help identify relevant foods to prioritize. Importantly, diets should consist of a variety of foods with varying nutrient densities.

Even adding just small amounts of particularly nutrient dense animal-source foods for example, organs, small fish, and bivalves to largely plant-based diets would go a long way toward ensuring adequacy of micronutrients commonly lacking.

Future analyses should focus on understanding how to use these findings to improve food, agriculture, and nutrition policies and programs, which tend to focus on specific foods or food groups.

Researchers could build on this work by incorporating additional foods and food groups, including eggshells 55 and wild or indigenous vegetables, nuts, seeds, pulses, and insects 56 , many of which contain very high nutrient densities Moreover, these ratings could be paired with broader diet quality metrics 54 and included as an additional way to assess food affordability, for example, by expanding on existing approaches 32 , 35 , as has been done for other nutrient profiling systems Finally, these ratings could also be used to provide more nutritionally relevant indicators of the environmental impact of foods, for example, by quantifying impact in terms of nutrient density.

TB and FO designed the study, conducted the analyses, and wrote the manuscript. Both authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version. The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

We thank Lynnette M. Neufeld, Saul S. Morris, Stella Nordhagen, Gina L. Kennedy, and Christina Nyhus Dhillon for their feedback on draft versions of the manuscript. ARs, average requirements; DGLVs, dark green leafy vegetables; EFSA, European Food Safety Authority; FCTs, food composition tables; FDC, FoodData Central; HICs, high-income countries; LMICs, low- and middle-income countries; NCDs, non-communicable diseases; UPFs, ultra-processed foods; WRA, women of reproductive age.

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