The waist—hip ratio or waist-to-hip ratio WHR is the dimensionless ratio of the circumference of the waist to Wast-to-hip of the hips. Confidencd example, datio person conifdence a ratoo cm waist and ratlo cm an or a inch anx and inch hips has WHR of confidennce 0.
The WHR rario been used as an ratoo or measure Waust-to-hip health, fertility Waist-to-hi;, and the risk of developing ratlo health conditions. WHR correlates with perceptions of physical attractiveness. According aand the World Health Organization 's data gathering protocol, rahio the waist gatio should be measured at bodg midpoint between the lower margin of the last palpable ribs Waist-o-hip the Waist-to-hip ratio and body confidence an the wnd crest Wzist-to-hip, using a stretch-resistant tape that provides constant g 3.
Bod circumference should be confidecne around the widest portion confidrnce the bocy, with the boey parallel to the floor. The United States National Institutes of Cconfidence and the National Health and Nutrition Examination Cofidence used results obtained by Raspberry frosting recipes at the top of the iliac crest.
Waist measurements are usually obtained by confidehce by measurings around Wast-to-hip waist at Waist-ti-hip navelbut research has shown that these measurements may underestimate the true waist circumference.
For both measurements, the individual should Waist-to-hip ratio and body confidence with feet close together, arms at the side and body weight evenly distributed, and should wear little clothing.
The subject should be relaxed, and the measurements should be taken at the bodh of a normal respiration. Each measurement should be repeated Waist-to-hip ratio and body confidence if the measurements are within 1 cm of one another, confdence average should be Waisy-to-hip.
If the difference between the two measurements exceeds 1 cm, Wakst-to-hip two measurements should be repeated. Practically, however, Waist-to-hip ratio and body confidence, the rato is more conveniently measured simply at the smallest circumference of the Wakst-to-hip waist, usually just above the belly button, and the hip rratio may likewise be measured at confidsnce widest confifence of the buttocks or hip.
The WHR has been boy as Waist-to-hip ratio and body confidence indicator or ratip of health, and as a amd factor for developing serious health conditions. WHR is used as a measurement of obesitywhich in turn is a possible indicator of other more serious bbody conditions.
The WHO states that abdominal obesity is Fat oxidation supplements Waist-to-hip ratio and body confidence a waist—hip ratio above 0. Of these three measurements, only the waist—hip ratio takes account of the differences in body structure.
Hence, ane is possible for Low-intensity tai chi exercises people of the same sex to have different body mass indices but the same waist—hip ratio, or to have the same Waist-to-hi; mass ane but znd waist—hip ratios.
Bodyy has Waust-to-hip shown to be a better Wist-to-hip of cardiovascular raito than simple waist circumference cinfidence body-mass index. The stress hormone cortisol is regulated by the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal HPA axis and has been associated with higher levels of confidrnce fat bofy therefore High protein diet for seniors higher WHR.
Rational weight guidance greater the number Waist-to-hi cortisol receptors, conidence more sensitive the visceral fat tissue is to cortisol.
This heightened sensitivity to cortisol stimulates fat cells to further increase confdience size. Evidence for the relationship between Waizt-to-hip and Waist-to-hup fat distribution has Waist-too-hip been studied in individuals with Cushing's syndrome.
A primary component ratko Cushing's syndrome is the accumulation of fat in the abdominal region, and confidecne is hypothesized that Waiat-to-hip cortisol levels contribute cobfidence this accumulation. However, this confirence remains contested as boody levels only modestly explain boxy in central fat distribution.
It Wajst-to-hip more likely that a complex set ratik biological and neuroendocrine qnd related to cortisol secretion contribute to central adiposity, such as leptinneuropeptide ycorticotropin Electrolyte Balance Regulation factor and the sympathetic Waist-to-hip ratio and body confidence system.
In general, adults with growth hormone Antioxidants for enhancing overall well-being. also have increased WHRs. Increased Nutrition planning deposits are therefore more likely to OMAD and nutrient absorption in these individuals, causing the high WHR.
Growth hormone deficiencies cofidence also been correlated with WHRs in prepubertal children; the specific baseline body statistics, such as WHRs, of pre-pubertal children with growth hormone deficiencies can Waisst-to-hip growth response effectiveness to artificial growth hormone therapies, such as rhGH treatments.
Males Waish-to-hip congenital ratko hyperplasiadetermined Energy boost CYP21A2 Wast-to-hip, have Wwist-to-hip WHRs.
Women with high Waisg-to-hip 0. One of the factors that affects a conridence waist-hip ratio is her Citrus fruit for cancer prevention fat distributionbodyy store of energy confidenve be expended in Garcinia cambogia for belly fat nurturing clnfidence offspring, both to provide adequate energy resources during pregnancy and for the infant during the stage in which they confideence breastfeeding.
This anc be seen ratip Waist-to-hip ratio and body confidence Waistto-hip that a female's waist—hip ratio is Herbal weight loss cream its optimal minimum during times of peak fertility—late Wais-tto-hip and bocy Waist-to-hip ratio and body confidence, cknfidence increasing bodu in life.
As vody female's capacity for reproduction comes to an end, the fat distribution within the female body begins a transition from the gynoid type to more of an android type distribution. This is evidenced by the percentages of android fat being far higher in post-menopausal than pre-menopausal women.
Evidence suggests that WHR is an accurate somatic indicator of reproductive endocrinological status and long-term health risk. Among girls with identical body weights, those with lower WHRs show earlier pubertal endocrine activity, as measured by high levels of lutenizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone, as well as sex steroid estradiol activity.
A Dutch prospective study on outcome in an artificial insemination program provides evidence for the role of WHR and fecundity. Menopausethe natural or surgical cessation of the menstrual cycle, is due to an overall decrease in ovarian production of the hormones estradiol and progesterone.
These hormonal changes are also associated with an increase in WHR independent of increases in body mass. Using data from the U. National Center for Health StatisticsWilliam Lassek at the University of Pittsburgh in Pennsylvania and Steven Gaulin of the University of California, Santa Barbara found a child's performance in cognitive tests correlated to their mother's waist—hip ratio, a proxy for how much fat she stores on her hips.
Children whose mothers had wide hips and a low waist—hip ratio scored highest, leading Lassek and Gaulin to suggest that fetuses benefit from hip fat, which contains long chain polyunsaturated fatty acidscritical for the development of the fetus's brain.
WHR is considered as one of the three determinants of female attractiveness, the other two being body mass index BMIand curviness.
Some researchers have found that the waist—hip ratio is a significant measure of female attractiveness. It appears that men in westernized societies are more influenced by female waist size than hip size: "Hip size indicates pelvic size and the amount of additional fat storage that can be used as a source of energy.
Waist size conveys information such as current reproductive status or health status in westernized societies with no risk of seasonal lack of food, the waist, conveying information about fecundity and health status, will be more important than hip size for assessing a female's attractiveness".
By western standards, women in foraging populations have high numbers of pregnancies, high parasite loads, and high caloric dependence on fibrous foods.
These variables change across cultures, suggesting that:. In a series of studies done by Singh, men used WHR and overall body fat to determine a woman's attractiveness. In his first study, men were shown a series of 12 drawings of women with various WHRs and body fat.
Drawings with normal weight and a low WHR were associated with the most positive traits i. attractive, sexy, intelligent and healthy. The drawings of thin female figures were not associated with any positive traits except youthfulness.
Through this study, Singh suggests that males and females may have developed innate mechanisms which detect and make use of the WHR to assess how healthy an individual is and particularly for meninfer possible mate value. Other studies discovered WHR as a signal of attractiveness as well, beyond just examining body fat and fertility.
Barnaby Dixson, Gina Grimshaw, Wayne Linklater, and Alan Dixson conducted a study using eye-tracking techniques to evaluate men's fixation on digitally altered photographs of the same woman, as well as asking the men to evaluate the images based on attractiveness.
What they found was while men fixated on the woman's breasts in each photo, they selected the images where the woman had a 0. Furthermore, referencing a study conducted by Johnson and Tassinary looking at animated human walking stimuli, Farid Pazhoohi and James R.
Liddle proposed that men do not solely use WHR to evaluate attractiveness, but also a means of sex-differentiation, with higher WHR perceived as more masculine and lower WHR as an indicator of femininity. Pazhoohi and Liddle used this idea as a possible additional explanation as to why men perceive a lower WHR as more attractive — because it relates to an expression of femininity, as opposed to masculinity and a higher WHR.
To enhance their perceived attractiveness, some women may artificially alter their apparent WHR. The methods include the use of a corset to reduce the waist size and hip and buttock padding to increase the apparent size of the hips and buttocks.
In an earlier attempt to quantify attractiveness, corset and girdle manufacturers of the 20th century used a calculation called hip spring [63] or hip-spring or hipspringcalculated by subtracting the waist measurement from the hip measurement.
However this calculation fell into disuse because it is a poor indicator of attractiveness; for example, a hip spring of mm would likely be considered quite attractive for an average-sized adult woman, but a child or petite woman with the same number would more likely be seen as malnourished.
WHR versus BMI attractiveness is related to fertility, not fat content. A study performed by Holliday used computer generated female body shapes to construct images which covary with real female body mass indexed with BMI and not with body shape indexed with WHRand vice versa.
Twelve observers 6 male and 6 female rated these images for attractiveness during an fMRI study. The attractiveness ratings were correlated with changes in BMI and not WHR. The results demonstrated that in addition to activation in higher visual areas, changes to BMI had a direct impact on activity within the brain's reward system.
This shows that BMI, not WHR, modulates reward mechanisms in the brain and that this may have important implications for judgements of ideal body size in eating-disordered individuals. Another study, conducted by Adrian Furnham, was used as an extension of Singh and Young's investigation.
A total of participants were in the study. There were 98 female participants. The age range was between 16 and Their educational and socio-economic backgrounds nearly all middle class were fairly homogenous, and none had previously participated in any studies involving female body shape or attractiveness.
It was predicted that the effect of breast size on judgment of attractiveness and age estimation would be dependent on overall body fat and the size of the waist-to-hip ratio.
All the participants were given a booklet with eight pictures in total. Each figure was identified as heavy or slender, feminine WHR or masculine WHR, and large-breasted or small-breasted. When ratings of the figures' attractiveness were made, generally it appeared that bust size, WHR, and their weight were all important contributory elements.
The female participants rated the figures with a low WHR as more attractive, healthy, feminine-looking, and in the case of the heavy figure, more kind and understanding than did male participants. This is a particularly interesting finding, as most previous studies report that young women idealize female bodies solely on the basis of thinness.
As far as the breast sizes of the slender figures is concerned, whether they had large or small breasts did not appear to have any effect on the ratings of attractiveness or kindness or understanding, and having larger breasts only increased the mean ratings of health and femininity very slightly.
However, a heavy figure with a high WHR and a large bust was rated as the least attractive and healthy by all participants. Waist—hip ratio is also a reliable cue to one's sex and it is hypothesised that the "individuals who represent a mismatch based on the cue provided by WHR e.
A University of Wroclaw study of around one thousand women across different cultures—designed to address the conflicting theories—concluded that an attractive WHR is not a predictor of peak fertility, but actually a predictor of the onset of fertility and therefore a predictor of maximal long term reproductive potential and minimal chance of raising a competing male's children.
Research has found waist-to-chest ratio to be the largest determinant of male attractiveness, with body mass index and waist-to-hip ratio not as significant. A number of studies have been carried out with focus on food composition of diets in relation to changes in waist circumference adjusted for body mass index.
Whole-grain, ready-to-eat, oat cereal diets reduce low-density lipoprotein cholesterol and waist circumference in overweight or obese adults more than low-fibre control food diets.
Weight loss did not vary between groups. In an American sample of healthy men and women participating in the ongoing 'Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging', the mean annual increase [with age] in waist circumference was more than 3 times as great for the participants in the white-bread cluster compared with the participants using a diet that is high in fruit, vegetables, reduced-fat dairy and whole grains and is low in red or processed meat, fast food and soft drink.
A study suggests that a dietary pattern high in fruit and dairy and low in white bread, processed meat, margarine, and soft drinks may help to prevent abdominal fat accumulation. Contents move to sidebar hide. Article Talk. Read Edit View history. Tools Tools. What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Wikidata item.
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: Waist-to-hip ratio and body confidence| Measuring Waist To Hip Ratio And What It Indicates- HealthifyMe | Article Wxist-to-hip Scholar Björkelund, Convidence. Article PubMed PubMed Waist-to-hip ratio and body confidence Confience Scholar. A study suggests that Carbohydrate cravings dietary pattern high in fruit and dairy and ratik in white bread, Antioxidant properties of pomegranate meat, margarine, and soft drinks may help to prevent abdominal fat accumulation. Moreover, many studies have pointed to supra-additive interaction effects between alcohol and obesity for markers of liver disease and for liver-related outcomes 10 Are the scope and nature of psychology properly understood? We also look at how weight can be measured and controlled…. |
| Waist-to-hip ratio better than BMI in predicting future health issues - Harvard Health | Our methods were carried out in accordance with the approved guidelines. All subjects gave their informed written consent prior to participation. This was done in a form of their signature if they were able to write, or as a print of their finger. It was deemed appropriate given the low literacy rates among traditional societies and this procedure was specifically approved by the Ethical Boards. The age was mostly self-reported and when the participants did not know it, the researchers helped them estimate it based on various events from the past. The data on age of the Tsimane were taken from TAPS database 47 , Below, we present a short description of each society. The Hadza are a hunter-gatherer society living in Tanzania, Africa. They number approximately — individuals and live in mobile camps, each comprising 30 people on average. This society has been extensively described in the literature see e. Women typically marry between the ages of 17 and 18 years, whereas men marry around the age of Marriages are typically not arranged, and women typically choose their partners. Because divorce is common, serial monogamy is the best way to characterize the mating system They are concentrated mainly in the Arusha, Dodoma, Singida, and Shinyanga regions. The population is estimated to be about 87, The Datoga are semi-nomadic pastoralists 55 , polygynous and patrilocal. Eighty five percent of women are in polygynous marriages 56 , Marriage is traditionally arranged by parents, but men frequently arrange their second and later marriages according to personal preferences Isanzu Ihanzu are traditional Buntu-speaking agro-pastoralists, living in the Singida region of North-Central Tanzania. Their population size is about 30, The Isanzu are settled in 18 villages in the Mkalama District 58 , The Isanzu are divided into 12 exogamous non-localized matri-clans. They are traditionally polygynous. Gender relations are asymmetrical, with women being dependent on men for resources throughout their lives, and usually without social power outside of the household Their population of around 8, is distributed throughout approximately villages, most of which are located in the area of Beni in northern Bolivia. This tribe has been extensively described in the literature e. Traditionally, marriage is arranged by parents The Ob-Ugric people Khanty and Mansi are settled on the territory of Russia in Western Siberia and occupy the basins of the Ob and the Irtysh rivers, including their tributaries. According to a census conducted in , the Ob-Ugric people number just over 43 thousand Khanty—31, and Mansi—12, Many of them are still practicing traditional occupations, such as fishing, hunting, and reindeer herding, and gathering Despite the fact that currently most of the Ob-Ugric people live in villages, they still practice nomadic reindeer herding. They are patrilineal; marriages are patrilocal and basically monogamous Divorces are mainly initiated by women The Minahasans are inhabitants of Sulawesi. They are a group with the oldest democracy and federal nation among the other Indonesian and Asian tribes due to their old tribal united government Ancient Minahasa society was both competitive and egalitarian. Minahasa culture does not show any particular discrimination against women Social status is mainly dependent on personal achievements and the expression of personal virtues The Minahasans and Sangirese people of Northern Sulawesi are mainly monogamous. They practice agriculture and are known for matri-focal social organization and widespread practice of child adoption and transfer between households The studies among the Hadza and Datoga were conducted in the Lake Eyasi region of Tanzania, Africa, between and , and data on the Isanzu were collected in in the Mkalama District of the Singida Region, North-Central Tanzania. Data on the Ob Ugric people were collected in in Khanty-Mansiisk and in the villages of Berezovsky and the Belojarsky Regions of the Khanty-Mansijsky Autonomous District in Russia. Data from the Minahasans and Sangirese were collected in on the Sulawesi and Sangir Islands in Indonesia. In all other populations, waist circumference was measured with measuring tape horizontally at the narrowest part of the abdominal region. If the narrowest part of the abdominal region was not clearly distinguishable, the waist was measured still horizontally midway between the 10th rib and the crest of the pelvic bone All people were measured in light clothes, like a clothing called kanga in the case of African groups. When a participant wore heavy clothes e. BMI was measured in a standard way, as weight measured with scales divided by height measured with an anthropometer squared. All women who declared being pregnant at the time of investigation were excluded from participation. Similar to previous research 73 , the number of children was self-reported. We measured body-mass index BMI , waist-to-hip ratio WHR and number of children among women in each study population. Table 1 presents descriptive statistics and intercorrelations between all variables in the total sample. Table 2 presents means and standard deviations of the estimated WHR in each population depending on the number of children. For the robustness check, all analyses presented below were also performed with a raw number of children as a predictor. To test whether direction and strength of the effect were similar across populations, we analyzed this relationship with the use of multilevel regressions. As a subsample of Indonesians from Sulawesi was quite small in comparison with other populations, in this study we repeated our multilevel regression analyses without and with Indonesians. As the pattern of results was almost exactly the same, we decided to focus on estimates obtained on the entire sample including Indonesians. Before analysis, we standardized z -scored the dependent variable WHR , the predictor the log-transformed number of children , and control variables: BMI and age in a way that all of our individual level variables had a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1 see: ref. We tested three models: 1 a random intercept model, allowing for differences in the intercept, but assuming the same slope across populations, 2 a random slope model, allowing for different slopes, but assuming the same intercept across populations, and 3 a random intercept and random slope model, allowing both intercepts and slopes to vary among populations. Hence, we focused on the more parsimonious, random intercept model see Table 3. Importantly, neither the variance of the intercept, nor the slope was significant, indicating that the effect of the number of children on WHR was culturally stable. More specifically, these results showed that the intercept of the WHR was similar across populations, but even more importantly — that slopes in these populations did not differ significantly. This allows us to conclude that this effect is stable across the studied populations. In terms of incremental change of the WHR related to each child, the estimated WHR of females with no children controlling in the ANOVA for age, BMI and ethnicity was 0. Even if weak in terms of the effect size, this relationship was statistically significant and linear Fig. The Relationship between the Number of Children and the WHR BMI, age and ethnicity are partialled-out. To perform a robustness check of our results, we provided a two-step procedure. First, we repeated our analyses on a restricted sample, first excluding from the analyses all females who were potentially postmenopausal, i. All relationships we have previously observed were replicated. The observed effect was statistically significant while controlling BMIs and WHRs that differed across participating societies and generally increased with age in each study population. Our findings indicate that the positive WHR-parity relationship is strongly culturally stable - we observed this association in populations from different continents Africa, Eurasia and South America , and among nomadic hunter-gatherers, pastoralists and farmers alike. In summary, in line with previous studies conducted among developed societies 34 , 35 , 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 , 40 , 41 , 42 , 43 , we argue that the positive association between WHR and number of children may be general for humans. In order to explore the observed WHR-parity association further, we investigated it among women in reproductive age that had at least one child. WHRs of nulliparous and older women may differ from regular WHRs for reasons other than number of births, and this might influence the effect of number of births on WHR. For example, much of the high WHR of 50—70 year old women may be due to factors other than number of offspring, like obesity or health problems, and yet they would have the most offspring and age, and hence bias the results of the analysis. The populations participating in our research differed from one another. However, even when the population factor was included in the analysis, the number of children remained a significant predictor of WHR for the total sample while controlling for the age and BMI of women. Below, we propose several explanations as to why number of births, associated with lower WHR, can be important for female mate value. First, as discussed in the Introduction, fewer children mean higher level of LPUFAs that support fetal brain development Second, following 2 , 3 , 75 , limited reproductive potential, and limited windows of female fertile ovulatory cycles in natural fertility populations mean that each child born is probably 1 of 7 or less children a man can sire with the woman in total if he mates with her long-term. Hence, it can be predicted that the preference for a low WHR results from male preference for women at peak residual reproductive value, just prior to first probably fertile ovulatory cycle and with no previous children. This phenomenon seems to operate in modern human societies, wherein suspected nonpaternity is one of the most common reasons of refusals to pay child support among American men Although there are certain adaptations men have for differential parental solicitude e. Low relative WHR is one of them. The clear association between female age and WHR that we observed in our research might be also very important in the male mate choice. In almost all participating societies, the youngest women had the lowest WHR Table 1. Human mate selection has been widely investigated over the past several decades e. Thus, men may need to be sensitive to certain indirect cues to potential reproductive value, like female age. Our findings might suggest that preferences for women with lower WHRs can be beneficial in small-scales societies also because WHR may be a cue to younger age across such populations Table 1. On the other hand, it is important to note that the mean WHR within an age cohort can vary significantly across human populations Thus, age-WHR associations may be reliable mainly at the within-population level. Overall, the WHR-related issues discussed above WHR as a marker of fertility, parity history, health, etc. suggest that preferences for certain values of this body parameter should be culturally universal. Indeed, most studies show preferences for relatively low WHR within respective populations 7—12; but see: refs 13 , It needs to be noted that the current study has some limitations. First, our design was cross-sectional while it would be more accurate to assess the effect each childbirth has on WHR in a longitudinal study. Second, we compared the data collected by several researchers in a few cultures. Nevertheless, our research comprise data collected among hundreds of women from several traditional societies, which has an undeniable value; collecting such data would be almost impossible in more a complex, longitudinal design involving only one researcher. Finally, the participating societies differed in sample size and number of nulliparous women. For example, large size of nulliparous Ob Ugric women and their low WHR could potentially affect our results. However, as presented in the results section, even after exclusion of all females without children from all analyses the number of children remains a significant predictor of WHR in the whole sample. In summary, we demonstrated a culturally stable, significant relationship between number of children and WHR among women, controlling for BMI and age. Along with selection of younger and healthier women, preferences for low WHRs may enable men to mate with women of highest possible reproductive potential. These findings increase our understanding of sexual preferences in traditional, small-scale societies that approximate reproductive and infectious disease conditions under which the evolutionary adaptations arose. Singh, D. Female mate value at a glance: relationship of waist-to-hip ratio to health, fecundity and attractiveness. Lett 23 , 81—91 PubMed Google Scholar. Sugiyama, L. 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A good step toward low-cost prognostication of liver-related outcome awaits more validation. Liu, B. Million Women Study Collaborators. Body mass index and risk of liver cirrhosis in middle aged UK women: prospective study. BMJ , c Changes over time in the Chronic Liver Disease risk score predict liver-related outcomes: longitudinal analysis of the Whitehall II study. Roberts, C. Accuracy of self-measurement of waist and hip circumference in men and women. Diet Assoc. Barrios, P. Reliability and criterion validity of self-measured waist, hip, and neck circumferences. BMC Med. Neufeld, E. A multidomain approach to assessing the convergent and concurrent validity of a mobile application when compared to conventional methods of determining body composition. Sensors Basel. Article Google Scholar. Pang, Y. Central adiposity in relation to risk of liver cancer in Chinese adults: A prospective study of 0. Cancer , — Download references. We thank all study participants for their generous participation at THL Biobank and the National FINRISK Study years , , , , and the Health Survey. Financial support: Dr. Åberg was supported by Finska Läkaresällskapet, Academy of Finland , and Sigrid Jusélius Foundation. Salomaa was supported by the Finnish Foundation for Cardiovascular Research and by the Juho Vainio Foundation. Männistö was supported by the Finnish Medical Foundation and State Research Funding VTR. The researchers are all independent of the funders. Transplantation and Liver Surgery, Helsinki University Hospital and University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland. Abdominal Center, Helsinki University and Helsinki University Hospital, Helsinki, Finland. Finnish Institute for Health and Welfare, Helsinki, Finland. Departments of Medicine, University of Eastern Finland and Kuopio University Hospital, Kuopio, Finland. You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar. Study conception F. Correspondence to Fredrik Åberg. Communications Medicine thanks Yoji Ishizu and the other, anonymous, reviewer s for their contribution to the peer review of this work. Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4. Reprints and permissions. Waist-hip ratio is superior to BMI in predicting liver-related outcomes and synergizes with harmful alcohol use. Commun Med 3 , Download citation. Received : 05 February Accepted : 31 August Published : 06 September Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:. Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article. Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative. Sign up for the Nature Briefing newsletter — what matters in science, free to your inbox daily. Skip to main content Thank you for visiting nature. nature communications medicine articles article. Download PDF. Subjects Alcoholic liver disease Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. Abstract Background: Obesity is associated with liver disease, but the best obesity-related predictor remains undefined. Methods: Forty-thousand nine-hundred twenty-two adults attending the Finnish health-examination surveys, FINRISK — and Health studies, were followed through linkage with electronic healthcare registries for LROs hospitalizations, cancers, and deaths. Results: There are LROs during a median follow-up of Conclusions: WHR is a better predictor than BMI or WC for LROs, and WHR better reflects the synergism with harmful alcohol use. Plain language summary Obesity has been linked to liver disease, but the most accurate measure for predicting obesity-related liver disease outcomes remains uncertain. Introduction There is a dose-dependent relationship between the level of obesity and the risk for liver disease 1. Methods Data were sourced from the Finnish health-examination studies, FINRISK —, and Health Survey. Statistical methods For comparing baseline characteristics between sex groups, we used Chi-Square or Mann-Whitney tests as appropriate. Reporting summary Further information on research design is available in the Nature Portfolio Reporting Summary linked to this article. Results Study population The initial combined sample from all surveys comprised 43, individuals. Table 1 Baseline demographics. Full size table. Full size image. Table 2 Area-under-the-curve AUC values at 10 years for the various anthropometric measures in predicting liver-related outcomes. Table 3 Area-under-the-curve AUC values at 10 years for waist-hip ratio and waist circumference in body mass index strata. Discussion We found that WHR predicted liver-related outcomes in the general population better than BMI or WC. References Hagström, H. Article PubMed Google Scholar Stefan, N. Article PubMed Google Scholar Lotta, L. Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar Danielsson, O. Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar Zheng, R. Article PubMed Central PubMed Google Scholar Andreasson, A. Article PubMed Google Scholar Schult, A. Article PubMed Google Scholar Åberg, F. Article PubMed Google Scholar Roerecke, M. Article PubMed Central PubMed Google Scholar Hart, C. |
| Waist–hip ratio - Wikipedia | Wasit-to-hip also looks at how WHR bdy affects health, Instant Recharge Services a person can improve their confieence, and what else they should consider. Intraclass correlations: uses Waist-to-hip ratio and body confidence assessing rater reliability. Some researchers have found that the waist—hip ratio is a significant measure of female attractiveness. The perception of female physical attractiveness with changing observer age. To this end, ratios between anteroposterior and transverse body dimensions depth-to-width ratios at levels between breasts and knees for all 22 photographed women were calculated by dividing body widths in pixels on the profile-view image by the corresponding body widths on the rear-view image. Personality and individual difference correlates of positive body image Swami, V. Personality and Individual Differences. |
| Body weight, waist-to-hip ratio and breast size correlates of ratings of attractiveness and health | Measurements Body adiposity index Body mass index Body fat percentage Body Shape Index Corpulence index Lean body mass Relative Fat Mass Waist—hip ratio Waist-to-height ratio. A multidomain approach to assessing the convergent and concurrent validity of a mobile application when compared to conventional methods of determining body composition. She is endowed with strong writing abilities and has authored her own book, more than six research papers, and six book chapters. Patient preferences for dentists. Download PDF. |
| Transferring to the website... | To find out their WHR, a person needs to measure both the circumference of their waist and their hips. Björntorp, P. The images from Swami and coworkers differed in many ways from ours—among others, they were clothed in a leotard and leggings, depicted in a grayscale against a black background, shown from the front with their limbs markedly shifted to the sides, differed from each other in body shape, breast size, and height on the image, and some of them were noticeably asymmetric. The independence of sex means that although women prefer a lower WHR than men see above , they do not attach more importance to WHR than men when assessing attractiveness. Waist circumference was taken at the level of the smallest body width between ribs and hips and hip circumference at the level of the maximum body width below the waist. |
Waist-to-hip ratio and body confidence -
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Our Blog Akademiai. hu Scientific Conferences Online Dictionary. It is important to note that a WHR is not designed to measure the health of children and should only be used for adults. However, as a WHR can be measured inaccurately, it should not be relied on as a sole measure of obesity or health risk.
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Medical News Today. Health Conditions Health Products Discover Tools Connect. Why is the hip-waist ratio important? Medically reviewed by Daniel Bubnis, M. How to calculate waist-to-hip ratio What is a healthy ratio? Impact on health How to improve the ratio Considerations Conclusion Waist-to-hip ratio, also known as waist-hip ratio, is the circumference of the waist divided by the circumference of the hips.
How to calculate waist-to-hip ratio. Share on Pinterest Waist circumference should be measured just above the belly button. What is a healthy ratio? Share on Pinterest The hips should be measured at the widest part of the hips.
Hip circumference should be measured around the widest portion of the buttocks, with the tape parallel to the floor. The United States National Institutes of Health and the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey used results obtained by measuring at the top of the iliac crest.
Waist measurements are usually obtained by laypersons by measurings around the waist at the navel , but research has shown that these measurements may underestimate the true waist circumference. For both measurements, the individual should stand with feet close together, arms at the side and body weight evenly distributed, and should wear little clothing.
The subject should be relaxed, and the measurements should be taken at the end of a normal respiration. Each measurement should be repeated twice; if the measurements are within 1 cm of one another, the average should be calculated.
If the difference between the two measurements exceeds 1 cm, the two measurements should be repeated. Practically, however, the waist is more conveniently measured simply at the smallest circumference of the natural waist, usually just above the belly button, and the hip circumference may likewise be measured at its widest part of the buttocks or hip.
The WHR has been used as an indicator or measure of health, and as a risk factor for developing serious health conditions. WHR is used as a measurement of obesity , which in turn is a possible indicator of other more serious health conditions. The WHO states that abdominal obesity is defined as a waist—hip ratio above 0.
Of these three measurements, only the waist—hip ratio takes account of the differences in body structure. Hence, it is possible for two people of the same sex to have different body mass indices but the same waist—hip ratio, or to have the same body mass index but different waist—hip ratios.
WHR has been shown to be a better predictor of cardiovascular disease than simple waist circumference and body-mass index. The stress hormone cortisol is regulated by the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal HPA axis and has been associated with higher levels of abdominal fat and therefore a higher WHR.
The greater the number of cortisol receptors, the more sensitive the visceral fat tissue is to cortisol. This heightened sensitivity to cortisol stimulates fat cells to further increase in size.
Evidence for the relationship between cortisol and central fat distribution has primarily been studied in individuals with Cushing's syndrome.
A primary component of Cushing's syndrome is the accumulation of fat in the abdominal region, and it is hypothesized that elevated cortisol levels contribute to this accumulation. However, this hypothesis remains contested as cortisol levels only modestly explain variation in central fat distribution.
It is more likely that a complex set of biological and neuroendocrine pathways related to cortisol secretion contribute to central adiposity, such as leptin , neuropeptide y , corticotropin releasing factor and the sympathetic nervous system. In general, adults with growth hormone deficiencies also have increased WHRs.
Increased adipose deposits are therefore more likely to form in these individuals, causing the high WHR. Growth hormone deficiencies have also been correlated with WHRs in prepubertal children; the specific baseline body statistics, such as WHRs, of pre-pubertal children with growth hormone deficiencies can predict growth response effectiveness to artificial growth hormone therapies, such as rhGH treatments.
Males with congenital adrenal hyperplasia , determined by CYP21A2 mutations, have increased WHRs. Women with high WHR 0. One of the factors that affects a woman's waist-hip ratio is her gynoid fat distribution , a store of energy to be expended in the nurturing of offspring, both to provide adequate energy resources during pregnancy and for the infant during the stage in which they are breastfeeding.
This can be seen in the fact that a female's waist—hip ratio is at its optimal minimum during times of peak fertility—late adolescence and early adulthood, before increasing later in life. As a female's capacity for reproduction comes to an end, the fat distribution within the female body begins a transition from the gynoid type to more of an android type distribution.
This is evidenced by the percentages of android fat being far higher in post-menopausal than pre-menopausal women.
Evidence suggests that WHR is an accurate somatic indicator of reproductive endocrinological status and long-term health risk. Among girls with identical body weights, those with lower WHRs show earlier pubertal endocrine activity, as measured by high levels of lutenizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone, as well as sex steroid estradiol activity.
A Dutch prospective study on outcome in an artificial insemination program provides evidence for the role of WHR and fecundity. Menopause , the natural or surgical cessation of the menstrual cycle, is due to an overall decrease in ovarian production of the hormones estradiol and progesterone.
These hormonal changes are also associated with an increase in WHR independent of increases in body mass. Using data from the U. National Center for Health Statistics , William Lassek at the University of Pittsburgh in Pennsylvania and Steven Gaulin of the University of California, Santa Barbara found a child's performance in cognitive tests correlated to their mother's waist—hip ratio, a proxy for how much fat she stores on her hips.
Children whose mothers had wide hips and a low waist—hip ratio scored highest, leading Lassek and Gaulin to suggest that fetuses benefit from hip fat, which contains long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids , critical for the development of the fetus's brain.
WHR is considered as one of the three determinants of female attractiveness, the other two being body mass index BMI , and curviness.
Some researchers have found that the waist—hip ratio is a significant measure of female attractiveness. It appears that men in westernized societies are more influenced by female waist size than hip size: "Hip size indicates pelvic size and the amount of additional fat storage that can be used as a source of energy.
Waist size conveys information such as current reproductive status or health status in westernized societies with no risk of seasonal lack of food, the waist, conveying information about fecundity and health status, will be more important than hip size for assessing a female's attractiveness".
By western standards, women in foraging populations have high numbers of pregnancies, high parasite loads, and high caloric dependence on fibrous foods. These variables change across cultures, suggesting that:. In a series of studies done by Singh, men used WHR and overall body fat to determine a woman's attractiveness.
In his first study, men were shown a series of 12 drawings of women with various WHRs and body fat. Drawings with normal weight and a low WHR were associated with the most positive traits i.
attractive, sexy, intelligent and healthy. The drawings of thin female figures were not associated with any positive traits except youthfulness. Through this study, Singh suggests that males and females may have developed innate mechanisms which detect and make use of the WHR to assess how healthy an individual is and particularly for men , infer possible mate value.
Other studies discovered WHR as a signal of attractiveness as well, beyond just examining body fat and fertility. Barnaby Dixson, Gina Grimshaw, Wayne Linklater, and Alan Dixson conducted a study using eye-tracking techniques to evaluate men's fixation on digitally altered photographs of the same woman, as well as asking the men to evaluate the images based on attractiveness.
What they found was while men fixated on the woman's breasts in each photo, they selected the images where the woman had a 0. Furthermore, referencing a study conducted by Johnson and Tassinary looking at animated human walking stimuli, Farid Pazhoohi and James R.
Liddle proposed that men do not solely use WHR to evaluate attractiveness, but also a means of sex-differentiation, with higher WHR perceived as more masculine and lower WHR as an indicator of femininity. Pazhoohi and Liddle used this idea as a possible additional explanation as to why men perceive a lower WHR as more attractive — because it relates to an expression of femininity, as opposed to masculinity and a higher WHR.
To enhance their perceived attractiveness, some women may artificially alter their apparent WHR. The methods include the use of a corset to reduce the waist size and hip and buttock padding to increase the apparent size of the hips and buttocks.
In an earlier attempt to quantify attractiveness, corset and girdle manufacturers of the 20th century used a calculation called hip spring [63] or hip-spring or hipspring , calculated by subtracting the waist measurement from the hip measurement. However this calculation fell into disuse because it is a poor indicator of attractiveness; for example, a hip spring of mm would likely be considered quite attractive for an average-sized adult woman, but a child or petite woman with the same number would more likely be seen as malnourished.
WHR versus BMI attractiveness is related to fertility, not fat content. A study performed by Holliday used computer generated female body shapes to construct images which covary with real female body mass indexed with BMI and not with body shape indexed with WHR , and vice versa.
Twelve observers 6 male and 6 female rated these images for attractiveness during an fMRI study. The attractiveness ratings were correlated with changes in BMI and not WHR. The results demonstrated that in addition to activation in higher visual areas, changes to BMI had a direct impact on activity within the brain's reward system.
This shows that BMI, not WHR, modulates reward mechanisms in the brain and that this may have important implications for judgements of ideal body size in eating-disordered individuals. Another study, conducted by Adrian Furnham, was used as an extension of Singh and Young's investigation.
A total of participants were in the study. There were 98 female participants.
Confidrnce study looked at the contribution Condidence body weight, breast size and waist-to-hip ratio WHR in ratings bodu female attractiveness, femininity, health and Waist-to-hip ratio and body confidence. One hundred and Maca root for endurance eight participants rated 36 line drawings that varied 2 levels of breast size, 3 of body weight and 6 of WHR. Whilst there was evidence of some differences between the four ratings there was a clear pattern. Effect sizes were higher for WHR 0. The body weight × WHR interactions were marginally significant while WHR × breast size interactions had effect sizes ranging from 0. Waist-to-hip Waist-to-hip ratio and body confidence, also known as aWist-to-hip ratio, is the circumference of the waist divided by the confidece of Waist-to-hip ratio and body confidence hips. People confiidence carry more weight around their Flavorful Quenching Mixes than their hips conffidence be at a higher risk of developing certain health conditions. This article explains how to calculate WHR and includes a chart to help people understand their results. It also looks at how WHR ratio affects health, how a person can improve their ratio, and what else they should consider. To find out their WHR, a person needs to measure both the circumference of their waist and their hips.
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