Low-intensity training adaptations -
These findings have clinical and athletic performance implications, as CRF is a strong predictor of risk for cardiovascular disease and all-cause mortality [ 41 , 42 ] and maximal aerobic capacity is a key determinant of endurance performance [ 43 ]. A limitation of many of these systematic reviews and meta-analyses, however, is the lower representation of women as participants, as noted in a meta-analysis by Bacon and colleagues [ 29 ].
Nonetheless, there are still a number of interventions in women-only cohorts that have documented improvements in CRF following low-volume interval training Table 1.
The vast majority of low-volume HIIT or SIT studies in women have used cycling exercise, however, and it is unclear if other aerobic exercise modalities are as efficacious.
Systematic reviews and meta-analyses have concluded that there is no difference in the efficacy of SIT and high-volume MICT for eliciting improvements in CRF in healthy adults [ 28 , 59 ], and available primary evidence in women largely supports this conclusion.
A few studies have also compared improvements in CRF following 6—15 weeks of SIT with an energy expenditure-matched MICT protocol, demonstrating similar [ 65 , 66 ] or superior [ 67 ] responses with SIT. Interestingly, a recent meta-analysis noted that women appeared to respond more favorably to SIT as opposed to MICT with respect to improvements in CRF [ 59 ]; however, the authors cautioned that the weighted effect size was small and a limited number of studies were available in the literature to conduct this sex-specific analysis.
Many investigations have reported no evidence of sex-based differences in low-volume interval training-induced improvements in CRF [ 53 , 68 , 69 , 70 , 71 , 72 , 73 ], although this is not a universal finding [ 10 , 74 , 75 ] Table 2. In the largest cohort of participants examined, Phillips et al.
In addition, 6 weeks of the same protocol induced similar improvements in CRF in a smaller cohort of older 55—75 years men and women [ 73 ]. While improvements in CRF are generally comparable between sexes, the relative contribution of central and peripheral mechanisms that underpin changes in V̇O 2 peak with interval training may be influenced by sex.
Exercise training-induced increases in V̇O 2 peak are predominantly due to adaptations that increase oxygen transport, including peak cardiac output, blood volume and oxygen carrying capacity of the blood [ 77 ].
However, this knowledge is largely based on research conducted in men [ 77 ] and research examining central adaptations to low-volume interval training in women is scarce. Despite improvements in CRF in both sexes, peak cardiac output was improved following training in inactive young men but was unchanged in women [ 75 ].
In contrast, Astorino et al. It is also possible that differences in participant characteristics such as ethnicity and oral contraceptive use could explain variability across studies, as both have been shown to modify peak cardiac output and stroke volume responses to low-volume interval training in women [ 46 , 79 ].
Additional well-controlled sex-based comparisons of central and peripheral responses to low-volume interval training, and their contribution to improvements in CRF, is a fruitful area for future research. Exercise-induced improvements in insulin sensitivity and glycemic control contribute to the well-established benefits of exercise for the prevention and treatment of metabolic diseases.
Low-volume interval training has been reported to improve fasting and peripheral estimates of insulin sensitivity and glycemic control in healthy adults and those with, or at risk for, cardiometabolic diseases [ 3 ].
However, determining whether sex modifies this health benefit of low-volume HIIT is important as a recent meta-analysis demonstrated that studies with a higher proportion of female participants are associated with smaller improvements in mean h glucose following exercise [ 80 ].
Improvements in insulin sensitivity and glycemic control in response to weeks or months of exercise training are most commonly investigated, but acute improvements can also be observed for 24—48 h following a single session of exercise [ 81 ]. Thus, when considering the effects of low-volume interval training on insulin sensitivity and glycemic control in women, it is important to consider both acute and chronic responses.
The acute effects of low-volume interval training on insulin sensitivity and glycemic control are not well established in women, and available evidence in response to SIT as compared to HIIT is conflicting. To the best of our knowledge, acute effects of low-volume SIT on estimates of insulin sensitivity or glycemic control have yet to be investigated in an independent cohort of women.
Thus, while it is possible that the low exercise volume of SIT is insufficient to acutely improve insulin sensitivity independent of sex, comparisons between men and women are warranted in this regard.
HOMA-IR primarily reflects hepatic insulin sensitivity, and therefore, the sex-specific results may not be generalizable to estimates of peripheral insulin sensitivity obtained from methods such as OGTTs or hyperinsulinemic-euglycemic clamps.
However, sex-based comparisons involving measurement of peripheral insulin sensitivity have not been conducted, and the efficacy of low-volume HIIT to improve peripheral insulin sensitivity and glycemic control in women can only be ascertained from mixed-sex cohorts.
The potency of HIIT in this regard has been attributed to high rates of muscle glycogen utilization during exercise [ 91 ]. Fasting-derived estimates of insulin sensitivity and glycemic control have been widely reported following 6—15 weeks of low-volume interval training in women-only cohorts.
Trapp et al. More recently, Sun and colleagues [ 61 ] have used a similar low-volume SIT protocol in women with overweight and demonstrated greater reductions in HOMA-IR after 12 weeks of SIT than in response to a MICT protocol involving a threefold greater exercise volume.
Encouraging findings in this regard have also been reported among women and girls across the lifespan who are understudied in exercise physiology. Women with polycystic ovary syndrome, a condition commonly associated with insulin resistance, have also been reported to improve HOMA-IR following 12 weeks of thrice-weekly aquatic-based low-volume HIIT [ ].
Available evidence also suggests that the improvement in HOMA-IR following 6 weeks of low-volume HIIT is similar between sexes [ 76 ]. In contrast to fasting-derived indices of insulin sensitivity, estimates of peripheral insulin sensitivity are generally reported to be unchanged in women following low-volume interval training, which is different from findings in men.
Gillen et al. The authors also observed greater increases in skeletal muscle glucose transporter 4 GLUT4 protein content in men [ 53 ], providing a potential mechanism for the sex difference in training-induced changes in glycemic control.
More recently, Søgaard et al. Considering that these authors did not describe any sex differences when presenting the mixed-cohort results, it is possible that women do indeed improve indices of peripheral insulin sensitivity and glycemic control following low-volume interval training.
Indeed, a more recent study from Metcalfe and colleagues [ 71 ] suggests that the previously reported differences between men and women might in fact be attributed to differences in baseline insulin sensitivity of participants, rather than sex, which corroborates other data suggesting that the degree of insulin resistance pre-training influences the adaptive response to HIIT [ ].
Clearly, additional well-controlled sex-comparison studies are needed, including those that evaluate potential mechanisms. Given the generally unchanged peripheral insulin sensitivity in women following low-volume interval training, it is possible that exercise protocols involving higher volumes of interval or continuous exercise are needed for more consistent improvements.
Recently, a high volume HIIT protocol involving 1 h of cycling three times per week has been shown to improve insulin sensitivity, measured via the hyperinsulinemic-euglycemic clamp, in healthy premenopausal and early postmenopausal women after 12 weeks [ ], perhaps suggesting a dose—response threshold may exist.
A training program that includes both high- and low-volume HIIT may also be an efficacious and more time-efficient option. Continued research is needed to decipher the minimal exercise dose necessary to improve insulin sensitivity in women.
Exercise training-induced increases in skeletal muscle mitochondrial volume can enhance skeletal muscle oxidative capacity and thereby improve submaximal fuel metabolism, lactate threshold and ultimately endurance performance [ 43 , ].
Another well-documented physiological adaptation to low-volume interval training is an increase in skeletal muscle mitochondrial content, as reviewed by others [ 1 , 11 ]. As little as 2 weeks of SIT or HIIT has been demonstrated to increase mitochondrial content in human skeletal muscle [ , , , , ], which is most often assessed using biochemical measurements such as the maximal activity or protein content of mitochondrial enzymes including citrate synthase CS , cytochrome c oxidase subunit IV COXIV and succinate dehydrogenase SDH [ , ].
However, as recently acknowledged in a narrative review by Bishop and colleagues [ 11 ], this area of research is predominantly supported by studies conducted in men. Nonetheless, there is evidence from a limited number of women-only cohorts demonstrating HIIT-induced improvements in biomarkers of mitochondrial content.
To our knowledge, Gillen et al. A companion paper from the same cohort [ ] further demonstrated increases in COXIV activity in type 1 and 2 muscle fibers using immunofluorescence.
More recently, Nyberg and colleagues [ ] have demonstrated 12 weeks of interval training 1-h cycling classes involving high-intensity intervals , three times per week, increased mitochondrial protein content in pre- and postmenopausal women.
Notably, the improvements following training were more pronounced in postmenopausal women compared to premenopausal women, suggesting that menopausal status may impact mitochondrial responses to interval training.
Future work should explore the influence of menopausal status on mitochondrial responses to low-volume interval training.
Given the limited number of low-volume HIIT or SIT studies conducted in women, it is perhaps unsurprising that we know relatively little with regard to how mitochondrial adaptations in response to low-volume interval training compare to traditional forms of aerobic training e.
When considering mixed-sex cohorts, however, similar improvements in mitochondrial content have been observed following 6 weeks of low-volume SIT and MICT in young healthy men and women.
Specifically, Burgomaster et al. This finding is consistent with recent studies demonstrating no difference in training-induced improvements in biomarkers of mitochondrial content or total mitochondrial volume following 6—12 weeks of low-volume HIIT and MICT in adults with overweight or obesity [ 91 , , ] or T2D [ ].
Thus, based on these mixed-sex studies it is plausible that low-volume interval training and MICT similarly increase mitochondrial content in women, consistent with several studies in men-only cohorts [ , , , ]; however, this notion has not been examined in an independent cohort of women.
The importance of investigating mitochondrial adaptations in women-only cohorts is bolstered by recent evidence demonstrating sex-based differences in the adaptive response to low-volume interval training.
A sex-specific response to low-volume interval training was also observed in a recent study by Chrøis et al. The mechanistic basis for the reported greater mitochondrial responses in men compared to women remains unclear. Interval training-induced mitochondrial biogenesis is initiated by repeated, transient disturbances in metabolic homeostasis that activate signaling pathways which promote the transcription of genes and translation of mitochondrial proteins [ 1 , ].
Additional work that examines acute molecular responses to low-volume interval training in women of varying age and health status, including sex-based comparisons, may provide insight into the observed greater rates of mitochondrial biogenesis [ 70 ] and improvements in mitochondrial respiration [ ] in men relative to women.
There is also evidence that low-volume interval training elicits comparable mitochondrial adaptations between sexes, specifically with respect to biomarkers of mitochondrial content.
Training-induced increases in the maximal activity or protein content of CS following 3 or 6 weeks of low-volume SIT did not differ between men and women who were recreationally active [ 70 ], inactive with overweight or obesity [ 53 ] or inactive and older [ ].
The similar net change in mitochondrial content, despite the aforementioned tendency for greater rates of mitochondrial protein synthesis in men [ 70 ], may be explained by higher rates of mitochondrial protein breakdown in men compared with women.
Future research in larger sample sizes that examines a comprehensive set of mitochondrial measures i. Reasons for the lower representation of women as participants in exercise research studies [ 14 , 15 , 16 ] are numerous and complex and may include investigator-driven decisions and sex-based differences in willingness to participate [ , ].
Regardless, more research in women is needed that evaluates the impact of population characteristics e. Progress in this regard will require targeted recruitment strategies and careful consideration of women-specific methodological factors in study design.
For example, in premenopausal women, menstrual cycle phase has been demonstrated to influence resting insulin sensitivity [ ] and exercise-induced mitochondrial gene expression [ ]. Thus, careful consideration of these factors is necessary for the proper design of future studies that include women as participants, and recommendations in this regard have recently been made by others [ , , ].
While controlling for menstrual cycle phase and hormonal contraceptive use are generally recommended and would improve the quality of women-specific data, this approach may also introduce limitations such as decreased generalizability of the results and increased timescale [ ].
Thus, methodological decisions in this regard should be carefully considered for each study and guided by the specific research question. Nonetheless, enhanced documentation and reporting of hormonal parameter s , using consistent definitions, as provided by others [ ], are needed to reduce ambiguity and help clarify conflicting findings between studies.
Properly matching both participant characteristics and the exercise stimulus remains a challenging issue for sex-based comparison studies. There is evidence of greater baseline insulin sensitivity [ ] and mitochondrial volume [ ] in women relative to men, which may impact training-induced responses.
It is also well known that V̇O 2 peak relative to body mass is lower in women compared to men of a similar training background [ , , ]. Given this sex-based difference, and the greater body fat percentage in women compared with men, it has been suggested to match men and women for fitness levels using V̇O 2 peak relative to fat free mass [ ].
The optimal method for matching the interval exercise stimulus in sex-comparison studies, however, is an unresolved issue, as noted by Bishop and colleagues [ 11 ]. Some authors have compared power outputs during SIT relative to whole body fat-free mass to account for sex-based differences in body composition and found no sex differences in relative power output [ 53 , 70 , 93 , ].
However, this outcome may need to be interpreted with caution since cycling is a lower body exercise and there may be sex differences in the relative contribution of lower body fat free mass to total fat free mass [ ]. Moreover, there is large between-participant variability in the homeostatic disturbance elicited by reference points commonly used to determine exercise intensity in interval training protocols [e.
As such, it has been suggested that prescribing exercise intensity relative to metabolic thresholds may be more appropriate for sex-based comparisons [ 17 ].
The methodological decisions related to matching the interval exercise stimulus between men and women may also depend on the study objective s and whether the findings will address a more applied or basic science research question.
Manipulation of the interval exercise prescription variables e. For example, women have been reported to have faster metabolic recovery following repeated Wingate sprints relative to men [ 93 , ] and therefore may require shorter recovery periods between high-intensity intervals [ 17 ].
Indeed, a recent study by Schmitz and colleagues found that 4 weeks of SIT involving shorter 30 s rather than longer s active recovery periods improved repeated running ability in women [ ].
Whether altering the recovery duration during low-volume interval training modifies improvements in CRF, insulin sensitivity and mitochondrial content in women remains largely unexplored. Interestingly, when 8 weeks of low-volume HIIT was combined with caffeine supplementation in women with obesity, larger improvements in glycemic control during an OGTT were observed compared to those who underwent training without caffeine supplementation [ ].
Additional research that examines the potential for nutrition to modify chronic responses to low-volume interval training in women would advance the field further.
Studies that assess the mechanisms by which low-volume interval training improves physiological responses in women are also warranted and will provide insight into how to optimize the interval exercise stimulus for women. There is a relative lack of data regarding physiological responses to low-volume interval training in women as compared to men.
Nonetheless, given the wealth of research conducted over the past two decades, the efficacy of low-volume HIIT and SIT to improve select outcome variables in women, such as CRF, has been consistently demonstrated.
However, research that explores peripheral adaptations to low-volume interval training in women-only cohorts, such as skeletal muscle mitochondrial responses and insulin sensitivity, is limited and conflicting, with some evidence demonstrating blunted improvements in women relative to men.
Further research is needed to clarify and advance our knowledge of these interval training-induced responses in women of various ages, activity levels and health statuses, including studies that provide direct comparisons to traditional MICT.
Additional sex-comparison studies that utilize best practice guidelines for matching men and women are also needed, as are studies that evaluate a mechanistic basis for previously reported sex-specific adaptations to low-volume interval training.
To increase our understanding of physiological adaptations to low-volume interval training in women, it is also necessary to evaluate the influence of training variables e. These research efforts are important and necessary from both a basic science and translational perspective, and will support sex and gender equity in research while strengthening the evidence-base for physical activity recommendations in women.
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Recently viewed 0 Save Search. Human Kinetics. Previous Article Next Article. Effects of Increased Load of Low- Versus High-Intensity Endurance Training on Performance and Physiological Adaptations in Endurance Athletes.
in International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance. Rune K. Talsnes Rune K.
For more information about PLOS Subject Low-iintensity, Low-intensity training adaptations here. The Natural fat loss study involved the completion Low-intensity training adaptations two distinct Trzining. Experiment 1 compared fibre specific and adapttaions muscle adaptatkons to acute bouts of either low-volume high-intensity interval training LV-HIT or moderate-intensity continuous endurance exercise END in a randomized crossover design. Six recreationally active men Age: After 6 weeks, both training protocols induced comparable increases in aerobic capacity END: Pre: Interestingly, only LV-HIT induced greater improvements in anaerobic performance and estimated whole-muscle glycolytic capacity.
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The Exercise That Prolongs LifeLow-intensity training adaptations -
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van Loon LJ, Tipton KD. Concluding remarks: nutritional strategies to support the adaptive response to prolonged exercise training. Download references. This article was published in a supplement supported by the Gatorade Sports Science Institute GSSI.
The supplement was guest edited by Lawrence L. Spriet who attended a meeting of the GSSI Expert Panel in February and received honoraria from the GSSI, a division of PepsiCo, Inc.
He has not received any honoraria for guest editing the supplement. Lawrence L. Spriet, selected peer reviewers for each paper and managed the process. Martin J. Gibala, PhD, attended a meeting of the GSSI Expert Panel in February and received honoraria from the GSSI, a division of PepsiCo, Inc.
The views expressed in this manuscript are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the position or policy of PepsiCo, Inc. Department of Kinesiology, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, L8S 4K1, Canada.
Gibala, Jenna B. You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar. Correspondence to Martin J. Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License which permits any use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author s and the source are credited.
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Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article. Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative. Download PDF. Abstract Interval training refers to the basic concept of alternating periods of relatively intense exercise with periods of lower-intensity effort or complete rest for recovery.
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PGC-1α has emerged as an important regulator of mitochondrial and metabolic gene expression by virtue of its ability to co-activate numerous transcription factors in the nucleus. The increase in nuclear PGC-1α suggests that low-volume HIT increases the activation of this critical regulatory protein.
Evidence suggests that PGC-1α activation is reduced in conditions of obesity, insulin resistance, T2D and ageing. The ability of low-volume HIT to increase PGC-1α activation provides mechanistic support for the potential health benefits of this type of time-efficient exercise training.
Despite evidence for low-volume HIT to promote metabolic adaptations linked with improved health, more research is required to determine whether HIT elicits all of the benefits associated with traditional endurance training.
An accumulating body of research indicates that interval-based exercise induces superior cardiovascular benefits compared with continuous aerobic training matched for total work Wisloff et al.
Whether low-volume HIT is of similar benefit to cardiovascular health requires further investigation. In addition, most of the low-volume HIT research published to date has involved relatively short-term training protocols up to 6 weeks and additional studies are warranted to examine the long-term adaptations to this type of training.
Finally, it remains to be determined whether our practical low-volume HIT model Little et al. Encouragingly, recent unpublished work from our laboratory suggests that this HIT model is well-tolerated and can improve muscle oxidative capacity and markers of glycaemic control in sedentary, middle-aged adults as well as individuals with T2D.
Low-volume HIT may therefore represent an attractive time-efficient exercise alternative for reducing the risk of metabolic disease. Short-term sprint interval versus traditional endurance training: similar initial adaptations in human skeletal muscle and exercise performance.
J Physiol , — Metabolic adaptations to short-term high-intensity interval training: a little pain for a lot of gain? Exerc Sport Sci Rev 36 , 58— A practical model of low-volume high-intensity interval training induces mitochondrial biogenesis in human skeletal muscle: potential mechanisms.
Short-term sprint interval training increases insulin sensitivity In healthy adults but does not affect the thermogenic response to β-adrenergic stimulation. J Physiol. Published online 14 June High-intensity interval training to maximize cardiac benefits of exercise training?
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Anti-cancer diet and nutrition P Trainnig and Martin J Gibala Department of Kinesiology, Trxining University, Hamilton, Ontario, Low-intensith 4K1, Canada. Regular endurance exercise Traininh induces numerous adaptations that enhance Low-intensity training adaptations performance, improve health and reduce Lod-intensity risk for chronic disease. While the physiological changes are complex and involve multiple organ systems, metabolic adaptations in skeletal muscle play a critical role in the beneficial effects of endurance training. In particular, exercise-induced increases in muscle oxidative and glucose transport capacities are believed to contribute to the reduced risk of diseases such as insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes T2D. Jonathan Little Martin Gibala What is HIT? The training impulse i.
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