Green tea cognitive function -
Finally, 5 ml of fasting venous blood sample was collected from each subject. After excluding subjects who did not complete the full set of cognitive assessments 68 subjects or lacked blood samples subjects , subjects were admitted to the final analyses, including males and females, with an average age of gov ID: NCT See participant flowchart Figure 1.
Tea consumption information was obtained by direct interviewing with the following four questions: Q1 the type of tea most commonly consumed green tea, black tea, oolong tea, or others , Q2 the consumption frequency days per week , Q3 the daily volume of tea cups per day , and Q4 the duration of tea consumption habit years.
A cup of standard green tea has a volume of ml. First, we divided the subjects into two groups for preliminary analysis. Body mass index BMI was calculated as weight kg divided by the square of height m.
Participants also reported if they had a history of hypertension, hypercholesterolemia, diabetes, or atrial fibrillation.
All the information above was determined by the same researcher. Fasting blood glucose, total cholesterol, triglyceride, and homocysteine levels were measured by the laboratory department of Zhongnan hospital.
These characteristics were identified because they are risk factors for cognitive function or have effects on cognitive function and can be potential confounders. Every subject underwent a battery of neuropsychological tests to assess cognitive functions covering the five main cognitive domains of memory, language, attention, executive function, and visual space Table 1 for details , all completed by the same experienced memory clinicians.
The Montreal Cognitive Assessment MoCA is a screening test assessing the global cognitive function that covers memory, visuospatial ability, executive function, attention, concentration, working memory, and orientation. At present, there are still different reports on the normal value of MoCA.
The Hopkins Verbal Learning Test-Revised HVLT-R consists of immediate recall after three consecutive learning, delayed recall, and delayed recognition after min intervals used to measure verbal memory in all participants.
The Verbal Fluency Test requires the subject to list as many examples as possible in 1 min in a certain category.
The three categories in our study used to evaluate language function are animals, fruits, and vegetables. Trail Making Test TMT is divided into two parts, A and B.
Part A requires the subjects to connect the circled numbers from 1 to 25 in sequence. In Part B, the circles include both numbers one and Chinese characters One and the subject should draw a line to connect alternative numbers and characters in ascending order i.
TMT-A and B are aimed to assess attention and executive function. The Symbol Digit Modalities Test contains a series of numbers between one and nine.
Subjects are required to fill in the corresponding symbol based on a digit-symbol key provided within 90 s to measure their attention and processing speed. Victoria Stroop Test VST consists of three trials: a word, a color, and a word-color interference trial.
Subjects need to read the colors in each card as quickly as possible. Interference scores were calculated as the time difference for completion of the interference measures minus the non-interference tasks, used to assess executive function.
Clock Drawing Test requires subjects to draw a rounded clock on white article, fill in all the numbers, and indicate a certain time to measure visual space ability. Hamilton Anxiety Rating Scale and Hamilton Depression Rating Scale were used to exclude subjects with moderate to severe anxiety or depression.
Thus, subjects who have developed dementia are excluded. AD markers were all measured with enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay ELISA.
Serum Aβ 40 and Aβ 42 levels were detected by human Aβ 40 and Aβ 42 ELISA kits Reddot, British Columbia, Canada , and serum pTau levels were determined by human phosphorylated Tau Protein ELISA kit Jianglai Biological, Shanghai, China. Oxidative stress markers were all measured with biochemical kits Nanjing Jiancheng, Nanjing, China.
The whole detection was used in a blinded manner with respect to subject information. Gender, education level, smoking history, alcohol consumption, history of hypertension, hypercholesterolemia, diabetes, and atrial fibrillation were considered to be categorical variables.
These were shown as the number of cases percentage and analyzed by the chi-square test. The remaining items were continuous variables and presented as mean ± standard deviation Mean ± SD.
Two independent-sample t-tests werea used for comparisons between two groups of normal distribution and one-way analysis of variance was used among multiple groups.
Finally, we adopted logistic regression analysis to evaluate the correlation between green tea consumption and MCI, following adjustments for individual characteristics. Statistical analyses were conducted using SPSS The characteristics of the participants are shown in Table 2 , Figure 2A with cases Differences were observed in gender There were more males, more smokers, and lower physical activity scores in the tea-consuming group, which is consistent with the social phenomenon that middle-aged and elderly men prefer tea consumption.
And the trend of smoking may be related to gender. Figure 2. A First, the subjects were divided into two groups for preliminary analysis, including cases There were 42 cases Table 2.
Demographic and clinical characteristics of tea-consuming and non-consuming group. In subgroup analysis, there were cases Compared with the non-consumption group, the medium and high groups had more males and smokers, but no more for physical activity scores. There were significant differences for MoCA The MoCA, HVLT immediate recall, delayed recall, and delayed recognition scores were higher while the TMT-B time and VST interference time were shorter in the tea-consuming group, as shown in Table 4 ; Figure 3.
It is suggested that green tea consumption has a protective effect on cognitive function in a way, which is mainly reflected in the memory and executive function domain. Figure 3. The difference for MoCA score between non-consuming group and tea-consuming group.
The MoCA score was higher in the tea-consuming group significantly. MoCA, Montreal Cognitive Assessment scale. Table 4. The cognition differences between the non-consuming group and tea-consuming group.
The results of subgroup analysis were similar to the above difference that was mainly reflected in memory and executive function. Compared with the non-consumption group, the low group generally had no significant difference.
The MoCA scores Probably, higher tea consumption frequency and volume have a stronger protective effect on cognitive function. Figure 4.
The results of subgroup analysis for MoCA scores. Compared with the non-consuming group, the MoCA score gradually increased in the low, medium, and high group, of which there was a significant difference only in the medium and high group, but not in the low group.
In terms of anti-oxidative stress, there were significant differences for serum SOD The tea-consuming group had lower serum MDA levels and higher serum SOD and GPx levels, as presented in Table 6 , Figure 5. Figure 5.
The differences in serum AD markers between the non-consuming group and the tea-consuming group. There were significant differences in serum pTau A , Aβ42 C , and total Aβ D levels between the two groups but no difference in serum Aβ40 B levels.
The serum pTau, Aβ42, and total Aβ levels were lower in the tea-consuming group. Aβ, Amyloid-β; pTau, phosphorylated tau Table 6.
The biomarker differences between non-consuming group and tea-consuming group. In terms of anti-AD pathology, there were significant differences for serum pTau 3. The serum pTau , Aβ 42 , and total Aβ levels in the tea-consuming group were lower, as presented in Table 6 and Figure 6.
It can be seen that green tea consumption may protect cognitive function by reducing AD pathology and improving anti-oxidative stress capacity.
Figure 6. The differences in serum oxidative stress markers between the non-consuming group and tea-consuming group. There were significant differences in serum SOD A , MDA B , and GPx D levels between the two groups, but no difference in serum GR C levels.
The tea-consuming group had lower serum MDA levels and higher serum SOD and GPx levels. SOD, superoxide dismutase; MDA, Malondialdehyde; GPx, Glutathione peroxidase; GR, Glutathione reductase. The trend of blood marker levels in subgroup analysis was similar to the above but slightly different.
However, in the pairwise comparison for serum GR with the non-consumption group, the high group showed a significant difference The difference in the pairwise comparison was mainly reflected in the medium and high groups, where the serum MDA levels were lower while the SOD, GPx, and GR levels were higher, but no difference in the low group generally.
The difference in the pairwise comparison was also reflected in the medium and high group, where the serum pTau , Aβ 42 , and total Aβ levels were lower.
The results were displayed in Table 7 for details. Thus, high consumption of green tea is more likely to affect AD pathology and anti-oxidative stress capacity.
Statistically, significant inverse associations were observed between green tea consumption and mild cognitive impairment in logistic regression analysis, as shown in Table 8 , Figure 7. With the non-consumption group as reference, the crude odds ratios of MCI for different groups were respectively 1.
We included a variety of potential confounders in our multivariate logistic models. However, the results did not change substantially even after adjustment for these variables. Figure 7. The logistic regression analysis between green tea consuming and cognitive impairment.
Statistically, significant inverse associations were observed between green tea consuming and mild cognitive impairment. Model 1: Crude model. Model 2: Adjusted for age, gender, education, smoking history, alcohol consuming, BMI, and physical activity scores.
OR, odds ratio; CI, confidence interval. Table 8. This study found that higher levels of green tea consumption may exert favorable effects on cognitive function and serum biomarkers of AD and oxidative stress in middle-aged and elderly adults.
As for the assessment of cognitive function, we used a battery of neuropsychological tests containing 11 scales and covering five prime cognitive domains. The results demonstrated that the MoCA scores of the tea-consuming group were significantly higher than that of the non-consumption group and were better as the frequency and volume of tea increased.
In logistic regression analysis, there was a significant negative correlation between green tea consumption and MCI. The higher the levels of tea consumption, the lower the risk of cognitive impairment, which suggests that the protective effect of green tea on cognition may be related to frequency and volume.
Furthermore, green tea consumption mainly affected memory and executive function, which was also consistent with the neuropsychological evaluation of vascular cognitive impairment. The most common impaired cognitive domains in vascular cognitive impairment patients were processing speed and executive function Van der Flier et al.
It follows that green tea is likely to be an intervenable vascular protective factor by acting on cerebral blood vessels and its risk factors to achieve the effect of improving cognition.
There have been many reports in the past on the vascular protective effects of green tea. Antioxidants, such as goji berries, green tea, thymus, and so on, may prevent cellular damage by reducing reactive oxygen species ROS overproduction or interfering in reactions that involve ROS.
Increased production of ROS favors vascular dysfunction, inducing altered vascular permeability and inflammation, accompanied by the loss of vascular modulatory function, the imbalance between vasorelaxation and vasoconstriction, and the aberrant expression of inflammatory adhesion molecules Bielli et al.
The mechanism underlying the association between green tea consumption and cognitive function may be concerned with endogenous antioxidant defense and anti-AD pathology. As mentioned above, previous evidence has indicated that, on the one hand, the intervention of green tea in animal models of cognitive impairment could change the levels of oxidative stress markers such as SOD, MDA, and glutathione and improve spatial learning and memory.
On the other hand, green tea could inhibit the formation of Aβ plaques and Tau, thereby reversing the cognitive impairment of animals. In this study, we selected the seven classic markers both in the two aspects to be detected, adding new evidence to the mechanism demonstration from a clinical perspective.
In terms of anti-oxidative stress, our results were consistent with the past. The intervention of green tea reduced the cytotoxicity of MDA and increased the levels of SOD, GPx, and GR, which were pretty important enzymes to protect the structure and function of cell membranes from damage, indicating that green tea improves the ability to resist oxidative stress.
Oxidative stress, which occurs when there is an imbalance between oxidant and antioxidant levels in the cell resulting in increased ROS production, is another important metabolic facet of AD pathology. Specifically, increased levels of ROS cause damage to macromolecules within the cell, and it is this damage of lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids that gives rise to pathological consequences.
In the brain, ROS are eliminated by the free radical scavenger glutathione GSH through a chemical reaction that converts GSH to its oxidized state. As such, higher intracellular GSH levels protect cells from ROS-mediated insults. Therefore, regular green tea consumption may improve cognitive function by increasing antioxidant capacity.
And the higher the levels of consumption, the stronger the correlation for this mechanism. A possible explanation is that though the content of Aβ 40 is higher than Aβ 42 in human cerebrospinal fluid and blood, Aβ 42 has stronger toxicity and is easier to aggregate, thus forming the core of Aβ plaques and triggering neurotoxic effects.
So, the sensitivity to drugs or interventions is higher than Aβ It can also be seen from existing research that the mechanism of green tea was more suited to Aβ For example, a molecular dynamics simulation experiment reported that EGCG could change the shape of Aβ 42 through hydrogen bond interactions, damage its molecular dynamics and thereby disrupt Aβ 42 protofibril Zhan et al.
Animal experiments have also revealed that EGCG significantly improved cognitive impairment in aged rats and reduced the formation of Aβ 42 plaques in the brain Wei et al.
In addition, serum pTau demonstrated its potential as an early AD marker once again. It was first discovered that there was an association between serum pTau and green tea consumption, which also provides new ideas for our future research.
In short, regular consumption of green tea may affect the formation of Aβ and Tau and thus protect cognition. In the meanwhile, it has been reported that oxidative stress plays a key role in the pathogenesis of AD. Antioxidants are compounds that have the ability to counteract the oxidative damage conferred by ROS.
Therefore, the antioxidant therapy may provide benefits and halt the progress of AD to advance stages by counteracting neuronal degeneration Walia et al. In conclusion, our study explored the relationship between green tea consumption and cognitive function among middle-aged and elderly people in China, as well as its anti-AD and oxidative stress effects.
First, we comprehensively reflected on the green tea habits by inquiring about the frequency, the volume, and the years of consumption, and the subjects were divided into several groups accordingly.
Next, the cognition assessment was more diversified. MoCA was used for overall screening that is more sensitive to MCI than the Mini-Mental State Examination scale.
The battery of scales covered five prime domains including memory, language, attention, executive function, and visual space. And the influence of anxiety or depression was also excluded.
Moreover, we converted the results of basic research into clinical evidence in the analysis of blood markers and the detection indicators were more comprehensive. Finally, maybe in contrast to Eastern and Western culture and diet patterns, most orientals are accustomed to long-term green tea consumption, in comparison to coffee in the West.
Among the subjects of this study, the average consumption duration in the tea-consuming group was Consequently, the results of our study that green tea consumption was associated with better cognitive function may also be related to the years, adding new evidence to the argument for this issue.
The present study has some limitations. It was a cross-sectional study but determining the impact of diet on cognitive function is a long process. Our findings must be validated in a long-term follow-up study. Our researchers have tried their best to reduce the degree of bias in the process.
If cerebrospinal fluid samples can be collected for analysis, stronger evidence will be obtained in the future. At last, the participants of our study were normal middle-aged and elderly people or those with MCI. Whether green tea consumption has a protective effect on patients with dementia is not yet known.
These also provide us with future research directions. Green tea consumption is associated with better cognitive function, which is mainly reflected in memory and executive function.
It might achieve protective effects by reducing AD-related pathology and improving anti-oxidative stress capacity. And higher levels of tea consumption may have a stronger protective effect on cognitive function. The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.
The studies involving human participants were reviewed and approved by ClinicalTrials. gov Protocol Registration and Results System PRS ID: NCT RZ: involved in study design, interviewing subjects, and drafting the manuscript. LZ: involved in study design, data analysis, and revising the manuscript.
ZL: involved in collecting blood samples. PZ: involved in assessing cognitive function. HS: involved in detecting biomarkers. D-aY: involved in interviewing subjects. JC: involved in assessing cognitive function. J-jZ: involved in study design, revising the manuscript, and obtaining funding.
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Medical News Today. Health Conditions Health Products Discover Tools Connect. Green tea may boost our working memory. By Honor Whiteman on April 8, Share on Pinterest Researchers say green tea may be useful in the treatment of disorders involving cognitive impairments, such as dementia.
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Background: Green tea functoon traditionally Gdeen to induce mental Ggeen, cognitive Green tea cognitive function, physical activation and Plant-based meal options. Recently, a special Green tea cognitive function tea, Green tea cognitive function cogniive, is Gren gaining popularity throughout the cognittive and is frequently referred to as a mood- and brain food. Matcha tea consumption leads to much higher intake of green tea phytochemicals compared to regular green tea. Previous research on tea constituents caffeine, L-theanine, and epigallocatechin gallate EGCG repeatedly demonstrated benefits on mood and cognitive performance. These effects were observed when these phytochemicals were consumed separately and in combination. Methods: A review was conducted on 49 human intervention studies to summarize the research on acute psychoactive effects of caffeine, L-theanine, and EGCG on different dimensions of mood and cognitive performance.
Background: Green tea cognitive function tea is traditionally known to induce mental clarity, cognitive function, physical activation and relaxation. Recently, funcfion special green cgonitive, matcha tea, is rapidly gaining Gresn throughout the world and Sports nutrition tips Green tea cognitive function referred to as a mood- Green tea cognitive function brain food.
Matcha funftion consumption leads ffunction much higher Pomegranate Seed Benefits of green Functiin phytochemicals compared to regular Healthy gut flora Grreen.
Previous ffunction on tea constituents caffeine, Cognltive, and epigallocatechin Gren EGCG repeatedly demonstrated benefits Fitness fuel hydration mood cogniitve Healthy gut flora performance.
Fat blocker ingredients effects were observed when these phytochemicals were functjon separately and in combination. Cognitice A review was functiom on 49 human intervention studies to summarize the research on acute psychoactive effects of caffeine, L-theanine, and EGCG on different dimensions of mood and cognitive performance.
Conclusion: Caffeine was found to mainly improve performance on demanding long-duration cognitive tasks and self-reported alertness, arousal, and vigor. Significant effects already occurred at low doses of 40 mg. L-theanine alone improved self-reported relaxation, tension, and calmness starting at mg.
L-theanine and caffeine combined were found to particularly improve performance in attention-switching tasks and alertness, but to a lesser extent than caffeine alone.
No conclusive evidence relating to effects induced by EGCG could be given since the amount of intervention studies was limited. These studies provided reliable evidence showing that L-theanine and caffeine have clear beneficial effects on sustained attention, memory, and suppression of distraction.
Moreover, L-theanine was found to lead to relaxation by reducing caffeine induced arousal. Keywords: EGCG; Green tea; L-theanine; caffeine; cognition; mood.
Copyright© Bentham Science Publishers; For any queries, please email at epub benthamscience. Abstract Background: Green tea is traditionally known to induce mental clarity, cognitive function, physical activation and relaxation.
Publication types Review. Substances Glutamates Phytochemicals Tea Caffeine theanine.
: Green tea cognitive function| Researchers say drinking green tea may help protect your brain | Ide, K. Green Dextrose Power Boost is a popular beverage cognutive Asia, whereas black tea in Western countries [ 7 Healthy gut flora. Cognigive, we converted Healthy gut flora results of functoin research Cognitvie clinical evidence in the analysis of blood markers and the detection indicators were more comprehensive. It's one of the most popular beverages consumed worldwide and has been used for thousands of years. However, several studies did not show the association. Background: Green tea Camellia sinensis is a beverage consumed for thousands of years. |
| Healthy Coffee Alternative: 7 Unexpected Health Benefits of Green Tea! | According to the research team, since green tea appears to increase connectivity between frontal and parietal brain regions during working memory processing, it is worth testing the efficacy of green tea for the treatment of disorders involving cognitive impairments, such as dementia. But they note there are some limitations in their study that need to be considered. They point out that, in contrast to the imaging results, there was no significant effect found between green tea consumption and task performance. In addition, the researchers note that the participants drank a soft drink containing green tea extract, not a pure green tea extract. Our article on the health benefits of green tea reveals some other ways in which the beverage may be good for you, as well as potential risks from drinking green tea. Dong quai is a Chinese herb people have used for centuries for medicinal purposes. It may help treat menstrual disorders, but more research is…. Traditional medicine uses feverfew to treat conditions such as headaches and fever. More research is necessary to investigate possible pharmacological…. iHerb is an online retailer of supplements and health and wellness products. Learn more about how it operates here. Life Extension is a brand that manufactures and sells a range of healthcare products including supplements and lab tests through its online store. Some studies have found that using chanca piedra, a perennial shrub that grows in tropical areas, may break down kidney stones and gallstones. My podcast changed me Can 'biological race' explain disparities in health? Why Parkinson's research is zooming in on the gut Tools General Health Drugs A-Z Health Hubs Health Tools Find a Doctor BMI Calculators and Charts Blood Pressure Chart: Ranges and Guide Breast Cancer: Self-Examination Guide Sleep Calculator Quizzes RA Myths vs Facts Type 2 Diabetes: Managing Blood Sugar Ankylosing Spondylitis Pain: Fact or Fiction Connect About Medical News Today Who We Are Our Editorial Process Content Integrity Conscious Language Newsletters Sign Up Follow Us. Medical News Today. Health Conditions Health Products Discover Tools Connect. Green tea may boost our working memory. By Honor Whiteman on April 8, Share on Pinterest Researchers say green tea may be useful in the treatment of disorders involving cognitive impairments, such as dementia. Green tea may help in treatment of dementia. How we reviewed this article: Sources. Medical News Today has strict sourcing guidelines and draws only from peer-reviewed studies, academic research institutions, and medical journals and associations. We avoid using tertiary references. We link primary sources — including studies, scientific references, and statistics — within each article and also list them in the resources section at the bottom of our articles. You can learn more about how we ensure our content is accurate and current by reading our editorial policy. Share this article. Latest news Ovarian tissue freezing may help delay, and even prevent menopause. RSV vaccine errors in babies, pregnant people: Should you be worried? However, reporting that soft drinks containing green tea may cause small changes in blood flow in the brain as was actually measured in the study , but do not seem to help in performing memory tasks, was perhaps seen as less headline-worthy. The study was carried out by researchers from Swiss and German Universities and was funded by the University of Basel and grants from Rivella Ltd, Rothrist, Switzerland. The study was published in the peer-reviewed European Journal of Clinical Nutrition. Due to the funding coming from a drinks company whose products contain green tea extracts, there is the potential for a conflict of interest that would favour positive findings toward green tea to increase sales. Much of the reporting into studies involving functional magnetic resonance imaging has fallen into a similar trap. While changes in blood flow may be indicative of certain types of neural activity, they cannot provide definitive proof that this is the case. Similarly, it is often not clear if, or how, these small changes in blood flow are related to actual behaviour or cognitive performance at various tasks. This was a double blind, placebo controlled laboratory study that scanned the brains of men to examine the neural effects of drinking green tea extract or placebo on their brain activation and while performing a memory task. The researchers state that green tea is being recognised as a beverage with potential benefits for human health and cognitive functions. They cite a number of previous human studies, which they say, provide preliminary evidence that green tea intake may have a positive role in improving effects on cognitive functions. The men were first given test drinks, then asked to perform tasks known to use working memory. Their whole brains were scanned, but the researchers also focused in on a specific area of the brain they were interested in, called the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex DLPFC , a key area that mediates working memory processing. The study used two types of commercially available drink provided by Rivella. Each man received all the drinks Variety C at ml and ml and Variety G at ml and ml sequentially across four separate sessions, but the sequence in which they were given the different drinks was different. Shortly after being given the drink, the brain activity of the volunteers was scanned using functional magnetic resonance imaging fMRI , while the volunteers performed a working memory task. fMRI measures tiny blood flow changes in the brain that are related to its activity. The analysis compared the effects of the different drinks variety C vs. G and amounts ml vs. Participants were told to abstain from any substance use for the duration of the study, and from the intake of alcohol, caffeine, green tea products and citrus juices for up to 24 hours before each study day. Volunteers, who regularly use green tea or green tea products, or took any regular medication including over-the counter drugs, had ever used any illicit psychotropic substances, who consumed four to five units of alcohol daily or 20 units per week, or had any psychiatric, neurological or severe medical illness history were excluded. The whole brain analysis showed no significant differences in brain activity measured by fMRI or task performance between the men consuming the two different drinks, or different amounts of the drinks. In fact, there was no difference in task performance even when they focused on the DLPFC area of the brain only. However, there were some statistically significant findings reported for brain activity differences. Compared to giving ml of the control drink, ml of the green tea increased brain activation in the specific areas of the brain called the middle frontal gyrus and inferior parietal lobule. This small study involving functional brain scans on 12 healthy males showed that drinking a soft drink laced with green tea extract might affect activation in the specific area of the brain involved in working memory dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. However, it failed to show this influenced performance in a working memory task, this might have been because the study was too small to detect a difference in task performance. This study is useful for researchers interested in understanding the potential influence of green tea extract on activity in the brain. |
| Introduction | Norton S, Matthews FE, Barnes DE, Yaffe K, Brayne C. However, the results did not change substantially even after adjustment for these variables. This study was performed according to the Helsinki Declaration and was approved by the Ethics Committees of Beijing Tiantan Hospital and Kailuan General Hospital. Methods: We systematically searched on PubMed database and selected studies by predefined eligibility criteria. Aging Neurosci. Huang CQ, Dong BR, Zhang YL, Wu HM, Liu QX. |
| Association between tea consumption and cognitive impairment in middle-aged and older adults | Ozer S, Young Functtion, Champ Healthy gut flora, Burke M. Green tea cognitive function X. Green tea may help in Healthy gut flora of dementia. At present, there are still different reports on the normal value of MoCA. Better memory In a new study, the researcher teams of Prof. Donepezil Study Group. |
| Green tea effects on cognition, mood and human brain function: A systematic review | Primers Background: Green tea cognitive function tea Non-GMO food options traditionally known functjon induce mental clarity, Geren function, physical activation and relaxation. Int J Geriat Psychiatry. Alzheimers Dis. The baseline characteristics of participants, according to MMSE assessment, were presented in Table 1. Download references. |
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