Metabolic rate and thyroid function -
It is generally assumed that TH concentrations are related to the metabolic intensity of a body tissue rather than the overall metabolic rate of an organ. Therefore, we would have expected TH levels to be more strongly related to mass-independent BMR rather than whole-body BMR.
However, in our data whole-body and mass-independent BMR were highly correlated and differences in their relationship with TH concentrations were minor.
Larger datasets are needed to evaluate potential differences in the relationships of TH with whole-body and mass-independent metabolic rates. We measured TH concentrations twice in each individual, in the field prior to BMR measurements and in the lab immediately after measurement of BMR.
This was mainly done to rule out a possible effect of handling on T3 titres potentially obscuring the link with BMR [54]. However, tT3 in the field and tT3 in the lab were highly correlated and means did not differ significantly.
This indicates that the possible impact of handling and BMR procedures on tT3 levels after the BMR measurements was negligible. As it is known that plasma TH concentrations increase within minutes after an immediate stressor such as our handling routines [54; A. The short half-life of TH in birds [12] may facilitate the apparent resilience of TH concentrations in kittiwakes.
As a result, the relationships of BMR with tT3 before and after BMR measurements were similarly strong. In contrast to BMR, both tT3 and fT3 were only weakly and non-significantly related to the FMR of kittiwakes. To date, surprisingly few attempts have been made to evaluate the relationship between TH and FMR, and these attempts are restricted to humans and laboratory animals.
While under controlled conditions, TH concentrations of humans were positively related to daily energy expenditure [24] , no such relationship was evident in unrestricted humans [60].
Estimates of energy expenditure derived by the DLW method have been shown to closely correspond to reference methods such as indirect calorimetry.
Deviation from reference methods is particularly small for mean estimates of FMR for groups of animals; estimates for single individuals are known to differ to a larger extent [40].
If the stochastic error in FMR estimates exceeds those of BMR measurements, the strength of the relationship of TH with FMR can be expected to be reduced in comparison to BMR. However, we regard it as unlikely that a possible difference in stochastic error can explain the distinct difference between the strong relationship of TH with BMR and the absence of a relationship with FMR, respectively.
In addition, plasma tT3 levels in were increased twofold in comparison to see Methods. As TH concentrations are known to be highly variable both within and among individuals [62] this differences may reflect natural inter-annual variability of tT3 in kittiwakes.
Yet, although low intra- and inter-assay variation in radioimmunoassays indicate that TH concentrations were assessed reliably, we cannot exclude the possibility that this difference was at least partly caused by differences in methodology between years. However, as we did not attempt to compare TH concentrations between years, our within-year correlations of tT3 with metabolic rates remain unaffected by inter-annual variability.
The lack of a relationship of TH with FMR might be unexpected because FMR and BMR are often thought to be intrinsically linked [9]. However, while an association of BMR with FMR has repeatedly been demonstrated [9] , [32] , [33] increasing evidence puts into question the ubiquity and nature of this relationship [8] , [63] , [64] , [65] , [66].
For example, Speakman et al. Also, work on laboratory mice revealed no evidence for a strong relationship between organ size and BMR, a critical assumption underlying an intrinsic link between BMR and FMR. In kittiwakes, Bech et al [67] proposed that FMR and BMR might be adjusted independently within a reproductive season making an intrinsic association of the two metabolic rates unlikely.
Even though we did not measure FMR and BMR in the same individuals, the strength of the relationship of TH with BMR and the lack of such a relationship with FMR supports this view. A positive correlation of TH with FMR could also be expected if TH had a direct effect on levels of physical activity of an animal, as physical activity is likely to account for most of the difference between BMR and FMR in kittiwakes.
However, while it has been shown that hyperthyroidism caused by high doses of exogenous TH increased physical activity or caused hyperactivity in laboratory rats [27] , [68] , an effect of natural variability of TH concentrations on physical activity is yet to be demonstrated.
In accordance with this, our results cast doubt on thyroid hormones as an intrinsic modulator of FMR in free-living animals and questions attempts to use plasma concentrations of TH as a proxy for FMR in field studies [23].
We are indebted to the staff at the Research Station of the French and Norwegian Polar Institutes in Ny-Ålesund for logistical support, particularly Frank Delbart, Martin Mellet and Wojtek Moskal, and Frédéric Angelier, Charlotte Lassen and Elin Noreen for their help in the field. We thank André Lacroix, for his assistance in T3 assay and are grateful to Catherine Hambly and Peter Thomson for technical assistance with the isotope analyses required for the doubly-labeled water method.
We thank Céline Clément-Chastel for providing constant support and help to the IPEV Program Conceived and designed the experiments: JW OC GWG CB. Performed the experiments: JW OC GWG JG YT CB. Analyzed the data: JW OC ASK CB. Wrote the paper: JW. Browse Subject Areas? Click through the PLOS taxonomy to find articles in your field.
Article Authors Metrics Comments Media Coverage Reader Comments Figures. Abstract Thyroid hormones TH are known to stimulate in vitro oxygen consumption of tissues in mammals and birds.
Munn, The University of Wollongong, Australia Received: October 3, ; Accepted: January 7, ; Published: February 20, Copyright: © Welcker et al. Introduction It has long been known that plasma concentrations of thyroid hormones TH affect the basal metabolic rate BMR of mammals including humans and birds [1] , [2] , [3].
Materials and Methods Ethics Statement The study was approved by the Governor of Svalbard and by the Norwegian Animal Research Authority. T3 and BMR In , we captured 24 adult kittiwakes 12 males and 12 females to simultaneously measure plasma total T3 concentration and BMR.
T3 and FMR In , we captured 49 adult kittiwakes 24 males and 25 females to simultaneously measure plasma T3 concentration total and free fraction and FMR. Data Analysis To check for potential confounding effects of diurnal variation [52] , ambient temperature [53] and handling time [54] on T3, we plotted T3 values against time of the day when the sample was collected range: 10h30—23h30 , ambient air temperature recorded at the colony range: 1.
Download: PPT. Table 1. Mean ±SE body mass, plasma levels of T3 and metabolic rates of chick-rearing of male and female kittiwakes in Kongsfjorden, Svalbard. Figure 1. Relationship between plasma levels of total T3 and BMR panel A , and mass-independent BMR residuals of BMR regressed on body mass, panel B in chick-rearing black-legged kittiwakes in Kongsfjorden, Svalbard in Figure 2.
Relationship between plasma levels of total T3 and FMR panel A , and mass-independent FMR residuals of FMR log regressed on body mass, panel B in chick-rearing black-legged kittiwakes in Kongsfjorden, Svalbard in Discussion Even though many in vitro studies have shown the stimulating effect of TH on tissue metabolic rate and the link between TH and BMR is well established in humans and several model species in the lab, evidence for a similar relationship in free-ranging animals is still scarce.
Acknowledgments We are indebted to the staff at the Research Station of the French and Norwegian Polar Institutes in Ny-Ålesund for logistical support, particularly Frank Delbart, Martin Mellet and Wojtek Moskal, and Frédéric Angelier, Charlotte Lassen and Elin Noreen for their help in the field.
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Johnstone AM, Murison SD, Duncan JS, Rance KA, Speakman JR Factors influencing variation in basal metabolic rate include fat-free mass, fat mass, age, and circulating thyroxine but not sex, circulating leptin, or triiodothyronine.
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R Development Core Team R: A language and environment for statistical computing. Vienna, Austria: R Foundation for Statistical Computing.
Rønning B, Moe B, Chastel O, Broggi J, Langset M, et al. They also found a strong correlation with BMI and neck circumference. In a group of 72 patients preparing for gastric bypass surgery, 25 percent were found to have undiagnosed subclinical hypothyroidismiii.
They concluded that overall, morbid obesity was associated with elevated TSH and that weight-loss after surgery generally resulted in decreasing TSH. It is important to note that this study, however, did not find a direct association between TSH and BMI.
Several studies have found changes in TSH in obesity with normal levels of T4 and T3iv,v. This has lead some researchers to believe that there is another cause of the elevation of TSH that is not related to low levels of circulating thyroid hormones.
Currently, a popular theory is that insulin resistance leads to changes in the thyroid that can result in changes in the gland and possibly in TSH levels of thyroid hormone levelsvi.
Other things being examined are associations with leptin and adiponectin. There is enough evidence for undiagnosed thyroid disease in obesity, that if you have excess weight or obesity, it is probably a good idea to have your thyroid checked with your annual labs.
This is even truer if you are female or know that you have insulin resistance or diabetes, because of the increased risk. The most common tests used to evaluate the thyroid are:. To learn more about thyroid disease, you can talk to your doctor or visit the following Web sites for more information:.
About the Author: Jacqueline Jacques, ND, is a Naturopathic Doctor with more than a decade of expertise in medical nutrition. She is the Chief Science Officer for Catalina Lifesciences LLC, a company dedicated to providing the best of nutritional care to weight-loss surgery patients.
Her greatest love is empowering patients to better their own health. Jacques is a member of the OAC National Board of Directors. References : i Nyrnes A, Jorde R, Sundsfjord J.
Serum TSH is positively associated with BMI. International Journal of Obesity 30, — ii Resta O, Pannacciulli N, Di Gioia G, Stefàno A, Barbaro MP, De Pergola G. High prevalence of previously unknown subclinical hypothyroidism in obese patients referred to a sleep clinic for sleep disordered breathing.
Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis. iii Moulin de Moraes CM, Mancini MC, de Melo ME, Figueiredo DA, Villares SM, Rascovski A, Zilberstein B, Halpern A. Prevalence of subclinical hypothyroidism in a morbidly obese population and improvement after weight loss induced by Roux-en-Y gastric bypass.
Obes Surg. iv Bastemir M, Akin F, Alkis E, Kaptanoglu B. Obesity is associated with increased serum TSH level, independent of thyroid function.
Swiss Med Wkly ;— v Marina A. Michalaki, Apostolos G. Vagenakis, Aggeliki S. Leonardou, Marianna N. Argentou, Ioannis G. Habeos, Maria G. Makri, Agathoklis I. Psyrogiannis, Fotis E. Kalfarentzos, Venetsana E. January 1, , 16 1 : vi Rezzonico J, Rezzonico M, Pusiol E, Pitoia F, Niepomniszcze H. Introducing the thyroid gland as another victim of the insulin resistance syndrome.
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