Consistent power conservation -
Between and , Gottfried Leibniz first attempted a mathematical formulation of the kind of energy that is associated with motion kinetic energy. Using Huygens's work on collision, Leibniz noticed that in many mechanical systems of several masses m i , each with velocity v i ,.
was conserved so long as the masses did not interact. He called this quantity the vis viva or living force of the system. The principle represents an accurate statement of the approximate conservation of kinetic energy in situations where there is no friction.
Many physicists at that time, including Isaac Newton , held that the conservation of momentum , which holds even in systems with friction, as defined by the momentum :. was the conserved vis viva. It was later shown that both quantities are conserved simultaneously given the proper conditions, such as in an elastic collision.
In , Isaac Newton published his Principia , which set out his laws of motion. It was organized around the concept of force and momentum.
However, the researchers were quick to recognize that the principles set out in the book, while fine for point masses, were not sufficient to tackle the motions of rigid and fluid bodies. Some other principles were also required.
By the s, Leibniz was arguing that conservation of vis viva and conservation of momentum undermined the then-popular philosophical doctrine of interactionist dualism. During the 19th century, when conservation of energy was better understood, Leibniz's basic argument would gain widespread acceptance.
Some modern scholars continue to champion specifically conservation-based attacks on dualism, while others subsume the argument into a more general argument about causal closure. The law of conservation of vis viva was championed by the father and son duo, Johann and Daniel Bernoulli.
The former enunciated the principle of virtual work as used in statics in its full generality in , while the latter based his Hydrodynamica , published in , on this single vis viva conservation principle. Daniel's study of loss of vis viva of flowing water led him to formulate the Bernoulli's principle , which asserts the loss to be proportional to the change in hydrodynamic pressure.
Daniel also formulated the notion of work and efficiency for hydraulic machines; and he gave a kinetic theory of gases, and linked the kinetic energy of gas molecules with the temperature of the gas. This focus on the vis viva by the continental physicists eventually led to the discovery of stationarity principles governing mechanics, such as the D'Alembert's principle , Lagrangian , and Hamiltonian formulations of mechanics.
Émilie du Châtelet — proposed and tested the hypothesis of the conservation of total energy, as distinct from momentum.
Inspired by the theories of Gottfried Leibniz, she repeated and publicized an experiment originally devised by Willem 's Gravesande in in which balls were dropped from different heights into a sheet of soft clay.
Each ball's kinetic energy—as indicated by the quantity of material displaced—was shown to be proportional to the square of the velocity. The deformation of the clay was found to be directly proportional to the height from which the balls were dropped, equal to the initial potential energy.
Some earlier workers, including Newton and Voltaire, had believed that "energy" was not distinct from momentum and therefore proportional to velocity. According to this understanding, the deformation of the clay should have been proportional to the square root of the height from which the balls were dropped.
On this basis, du Châtelet proposed that energy must always have the same dimensions in any form, which is necessary to be able to consider it in different forms kinetic, potential, heat, Engineers such as John Smeaton , Peter Ewart , Carl Holtzmann [ de ; ar ] , Gustave-Adolphe Hirn , and Marc Seguin recognized that conservation of momentum alone was not adequate for practical calculation and made use of Leibniz's principle.
The principle was also championed by some chemists such as William Hyde Wollaston. Academics such as John Playfair were quick to point out that kinetic energy is clearly not conserved.
This is obvious to a modern analysis based on the second law of thermodynamics , but in the 18th and 19th centuries, the fate of the lost energy was still unknown. Gradually it came to be suspected that the heat inevitably generated by motion under friction was another form of vis viva.
In , Antoine Lavoisier and Pierre-Simon Laplace reviewed the two competing theories of vis viva and caloric theory. Vis viva then started to be known as energy , after the term was first used in that sense by Thomas Young in which can be understood as converting kinetic energy to work , was largely the result of Gaspard-Gustave Coriolis and Jean-Victor Poncelet over the period — The former called the quantity quantité de travail quantity of work and the latter, travail mécanique mechanical work , and both championed its use in engineering calculations.
It may appear, according to circumstances, as motion, chemical affinity, cohesion, electricity, light and magnetism; and from any one of these forms it can be transformed into any of the others. A key stage in the development of the modern conservation principle was the demonstration of the mechanical equivalent of heat.
The caloric theory maintained that heat could neither be created nor destroyed, whereas conservation of energy entails the contrary principle that heat and mechanical work are interchangeable. In the middle of the eighteenth century, Mikhail Lomonosov , a Russian scientist, postulated his corpusculo-kinetic theory of heat, which rejected the idea of a caloric.
Through the results of empirical studies, Lomonosov came to the conclusion that heat was not transferred through the particles of the caloric fluid. In , Count Rumford Benjamin Thompson performed measurements of the frictional heat generated in boring cannons and developed the idea that heat is a form of kinetic energy; his measurements refuted caloric theory, but were imprecise enough to leave room for doubt.
The mechanical equivalence principle was first stated in its modern form by the German surgeon Julius Robert von Mayer in He discovered that heat and mechanical work were both forms of energy, and in , after improving his knowledge of physics, he published a monograph that stated a quantitative relationship between them.
Meanwhile, in , James Prescott Joule independently discovered the mechanical equivalent in a series of experiments.
In the most famous, now called the "Joule apparatus", a descending weight attached to a string caused a paddle immersed in water to rotate. He showed that the gravitational potential energy lost by the weight in descending was equal to the internal energy gained by the water through friction with the paddle.
Over the period —, similar work was carried out by engineer Ludwig A. Colding , although it was little known outside his native Denmark. Both Joule's and Mayer's work suffered from resistance and neglect but it was Joule's that eventually drew the wider recognition.
In , the Welsh scientist William Robert Grove postulated a relationship between mechanics, heat, light , electricity , and magnetism by treating them all as manifestations of a single "force" energy in modern terms.
In , Grove published his theories in his book The Correlation of Physical Forces. In , the Scottish mathematician William Rankine first used the phrase the law of the conservation of energy for the principle. In , Peter Guthrie Tait claimed that the principle originated with Sir Isaac Newton, based on a creative reading of propositions 40 and 41 of the Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica.
This is now regarded as an example of Whig history. Matter is composed of atoms and what makes up atoms. Matter has intrinsic or rest mass. In the limited range of recognized experience of the nineteenth century, it was found that such rest mass is conserved.
Einstein's theory of special relativity showed that rest mass corresponds to an equivalent amount of rest energy. This means that rest mass can be converted to or from equivalent amounts of non-material forms of energy, for example, kinetic energy, potential energy, and electromagnetic radiant energy.
When this happens, as recognized in twentieth-century experience, rest mass is not conserved, unlike the total mass or total energy. All forms of energy contribute to the total mass and total energy. For example, an electron and a positron each have rest mass.
They can perish together, converting their combined rest energy into photons which have electromagnetic radiant energy but no rest mass. If this occurs within an isolated system that does not release the photons or their energy into the external surroundings, then neither the total mass nor the total energy of the system will change.
The produced electromagnetic radiant energy contributes just as much to the inertia and to any weight of the system as did the rest mass of the electron and positron before their demise. Likewise, non-material forms of energy can perish into matter, which has rest mass. Thus, conservation of energy total , including material or rest energy and conservation of mass total , not just rest are one equivalent law.
In the 18th century, these had appeared as two seemingly-distinct laws. The discovery in that electrons emitted in beta decay have a continuous rather than a discrete spectrum appeared to contradict conservation of energy, under the then-current assumption that beta decay is the simple emission of an electron from a nucleus.
For a closed thermodynamic system , the first law of thermodynamics may be stated as:. Thus one can state the amount of internal energy possessed by a thermodynamic system that one knows is presently in a given state, but one cannot tell, just from knowledge of the given present state, how much energy has in the past flowed into or out of the system as a result of its being heated or cooled, nor as a result of work being performed on or by the system.
Entropy is a function of the state of a system which tells of limitations of the possibility of conversion of heat into work. In the fictive case in which the process is idealized and infinitely slow, so as to be called quasi-static , and regarded as reversible, the heat being transferred from a source with temperature infinitesimally above the system temperature, the heat energy may be written.
Temperature and entropy are variables of the state of a system. If an open system in which mass may be exchanged with the environment has several walls such that the mass transfer is through rigid walls separate from the heat and work transfers, then the first law may be written as [21].
The conservation of energy is a common feature in many physical theories. From a mathematical point of view it is understood as a consequence of Noether's theorem , developed by Emmy Noether in and first published in In any physical theory that obeys the stationary-action principle, the theorem states that every continuous symmetry has an associated conserved quantity; if the theory's symmetry is time invariance, then the conserved quantity is called "energy".
Philosophically this can be stated as "nothing depends on time per se". In other words, if the physical system is invariant under the continuous symmetry of time translation , then its energy which is the canonical conjugate quantity to time is conserved.
Conversely, systems that are not invariant under shifts in time e. systems with time-dependent potential energy do not exhibit conservation of energy — unless we consider them to exchange energy with another, an external system so that the theory of the enlarged system becomes time-invariant again.
Conservation of energy for finite systems is valid in physical theories such as special relativity and quantum theory including QED in the flat space-time. With the discovery of special relativity by Henri Poincaré and Albert Einstein , the energy was proposed to be a component of an energy-momentum 4-vector.
Each of the four components one of energy and three of momentum of this vector is separately conserved across time, in any closed system, as seen from any given inertial reference frame. Also conserved is the vector length Minkowski norm , which is the rest mass for single particles, and the invariant mass for systems of particles where momenta and energy are separately summed before the length is calculated.
The relativistic energy of a single massive particle contains a term related to its rest mass in addition to its kinetic energy of motion. Thus, the rule of conservation of energy over time in special relativity continues to hold, so long as the reference frame of the observer is unchanged.
This applies to the total energy of systems, although different observers disagree as to the energy value. Also conserved, and invariant to all observers, is the invariant mass, which is the minimal system mass and energy that can be seen by any observer, and which is defined by the energy—momentum relation.
General relativity introduces new phenomena. In an expanding universe, photons spontaneously redshift and tethers spontaneously gain tension; if vacuum energy is positive, the total vacuum energy of the universe appears to spontaneously increase as the volume of space increases.
Some scholars claim that energy is no longer meaningfully conserved in any identifiable form. John Baez 's view is that energy—momentum conservation is not well-defined except in certain special cases. Energy-momentum is typically expressed with the aid of a stress—energy—momentum pseudotensor.
However, since pseudotensors are not tensors, they do not transform cleanly between reference frames. If the metric under consideration is static that is, does not change with time or asymptotically flat that is, at an infinite distance away spacetime looks empty , then energy conservation holds without major pitfalls.
In practice, some metrics, notably the Friedmann—Lemaître—Robertson—Walker metric that appears to govern the universe, do not satisfy these constraints and energy conservation is not well defined.
For asymptotically flat universes, Einstein and others salvage conservation of energy by introducing a specific global gravitational potential energy that cancels out mass-energy changes triggered by spacetime expansion or contraction.
This global energy has no well-defined density and cannot technically be applied to a non-asymptotically flat universe; however, for practical purposes this can be finessed, and so by this view, energy is conserved in our universe.
In quantum mechanics , the energy of a quantum system is described by a self-adjoint or Hermitian operator called the Hamiltonian , which acts on the Hilbert space or a space of wave functions of the system.
If the Hamiltonian is a time-independent operator, emergence probability of the measurement result does not change in time over the evolution of the system. Thus the expectation value of energy is also time independent.
The local energy conservation in quantum field theory is ensured by the quantum Noether's theorem for the energy-momentum tensor operator. Thus energy is conserved by the normal unitary evolution of a quantum system.
However, when the non-unitary Born rule is applied, the system's energy is measured with an energy that can be below or above the expectation value, if the system was not in an energy eigenstate.
For macroscopic systems, this effect is usually too small to measure. The disposition of this energy gap is not well-understood; some physicists believe that the energy is transferred to or from the macroscopic environment in the course of the measurement process, while others believe that the observable energy is only conserved "on average".
In the context of perpetual motion machines such as the Orbo , Professor Eric Ash has argued at the BBC : "Denying [conservation of energy] would undermine not just little bits of science - the whole edifice would be no more.
All of the technology on which we built the modern world would lie in ruins. Energy conservation has been a foundational physical principle for about two hundred years.
From the point of view of modern general relativity, the lab environment can be well approximated by Minkowski spacetime , where energy is exactly conserved. The entire Earth can be well approximated by the Schwarzschild metric , where again energy is exactly conserved.
Given all the experimental evidence, any new theory such as quantum gravity , in order to be successful, will have to explain why energy has appeared to always be exactly conserved in terrestrial experiments.
Doubly special relativity models may argue for a breakdown in energy-momentum conservation for sufficiently energetic particles; such models are constrained by observations that cosmic rays appear to travel for billions of years without displaying anomalous non-conservation behavior.
If true, objects could be expected to spontaneously heat up; thus, such models are constrained by observations of large, cool astronomical objects as well as the observation of often supercooled laboratory experiments. Milton A. Rothman wrote that the law of conservation of energy has been verified by nuclear physics experiments to an accuracy of one part in a thousand million million 10 He then defines its precision as "perfect for all practical purposes".
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By moving critical energy infrastructure below ground, industries can protect their assets and ensure uninterrupted energy supply.
Applications in Various Industries The benefits of underground techniques extend across various industries, proving their versatility and adaptability.
Let's examine some notable applications: Underground Data Centers Data centers are notorious for their energy-intensive operations.
By constructing data centers underground, the thermal stability provided by the Earth's crust can significantly reduce cooling requirements. This results in substantial energy savings, along with improved data center efficiency and reduced environmental impact.
Reduced carbon footprint through minimized energy consumption. Enhanced data protection through increased physical security.
Underground Greenhouses Agriculture plays a vital role in sustainable development. Underground greenhouses offer a unique solution to optimize agricultural practices.
These facilities tap into geothermal energy, providing a stable and controlled environment for crop growth. Key advantages of underground greenhouses include: Year-long crop production due to consistent temperature and protection against extreme weather conditions.
Significant reduction in water consumption through innovative irrigation systems. Optimal land utilization by freeing up surface land for other purposes. Future Prospects As the world continues its transition towards cleaner and more sustainable energy systems, underground techniques hold immense promise for the future.
Here are some future prospects and trends to consider: Rapid advancements in drilling technologies will facilitate easier and cost-effective construction of underground facilities, further promoting widespread adoption. The integration of renewable energy sources, such as solar or wind, with underground techniques can provide a comprehensive energy solution.
Collaboration between industries, research institutions, and governments is key to unlocking the full potential of underground techniques and driving innovation. In conclusion, exploring underground techniques in energy efficiency opens up a world of opportunities for industries looking to reduce their environmental impact.
The thermal stability, reduced reliance on fossil fuels, and space optimization offered by underground facilities are just some of the advantages they bring. As industries increasingly tap into the Earth's natural resources, we can expect remarkable advancements in energy efficiency, paving the way towards a greener and more sustainable future.
Digging Deeper: Unveiling the Untapped Potential of Underground Methods for Energy Conservation This article aims to dig deeper into this lesser-known concept and highlight its untapped potential for a greener future.
The Power Lies Beneath Underground methods for energy conservation involve harnessing the Earth's natural energy in various forms. By utilizing the natural temperature stability and insulation properties of the ground, we can reduce energy consumption and decrease our carbon footprint significantly.
Let's explore some of the key techniques and their advantages: Geothermal Heating and Cooling Systems: Geothermal systems tap into the stable temperatures found below the Earth's surface to heat and cool homes and buildings.
They produce no greenhouse gas emissions, making them an environmentally friendly alternative to conventional heating and cooling methods. According to the U. Environmental Protection Agency EPA , geothermal systems are one of the most energy-efficient, environmentally clean, and cost-effective space conditioning systems available.
Underground Heat Storage: Underground heat storage involves capturing excess heat generated by industrial processes or power plants and storing it in the ground for later use. This stored heat can then be retrieved during periods of high energy demand, reducing the need for additional energy production.
By utilizing underground heat storage, we can significantly increase the overall efficiency of energy systems and reduce wastage. The Untapped Potential Despite the obvious benefits, underground methods for energy conservation have yet to reach their full potential.
Here are some reasons why: Lack of Awareness: Many people are unfamiliar with these underground energy solutions, leading to a lack of demand and investment. Initial Installation Costs: While the long-term energy savings are significant, the upfront costs of implementing underground systems can be a barrier for some.
Technical Expertise: Proper installation and maintenance of underground systems require specialized knowledge and skills. Regulatory Challenges: In some regions, outdated regulations or lack of policy frameworks hinder the widespread adoption of underground methods for energy conservation.
However, with the right approach and increasing global emphasis on sustainability, we can unlock the untapped potential of underground energy solutions. Governments, organizations, and individuals can play a crucial role in nurturing this emerging market for renewable energy. Conclusion By delving into the world beneath our feet, we can unearth a wealth of energy-saving opportunities.
Underground methods for energy conservation offer a greener and more sustainable alternative to traditional energy sources. With advancements in technology and increased awareness, we can tap into this untapped potential and create a brighter, more eco-friendly future for generations to come.
Construction in the energy sector. In today's rapidly evolving world, the need to develop sustainable and eco-friendly infrastructure has never been more pressing. As we strive to reduce our carbon footprint and mitigate the impact of climate change, innovative solutions are crucial.
One area that is gaining significant attention is the utilization of underground techniques for energy conservation and the creation of greener infrastructure. Summary: Creating Greener Infrastructure: Harnessing the Power of Underground Techniques This article explores the advantages, key takeaways, and potential of revolutionizing energy conservation through harnessing the power of underground methods.
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Thanks Nutritional facts. Consistent power conservation conservahion read. Doesn't Consistent power conservation allow for Consustent and temporary violations of energy conservation? Perhaps as with the process resulting in black hole evaporation some of these "temporary" violations become locked in? Hi Sabine, many thanks, this post is interesting and very refreshing which is so rare in physics :. Antioxidant-rich health benefits Consistent power conservation explores the advantages, key powwr, and potential Consistent power conservation revolutionizing poeer conservation through harnessing the power of underground methods. Coonservation Rise of Underground Techniques With increasing poweg Consistent power conservation oCnsistent limited natural resources, traditional methods of energy production are becoming less sustainable. As a result, industries and governments worldwide are turning their attention to alternative approaches. Harnessing underground techniques presents numerous benefits, making it an attractive avenue for energy conservation: Enhanced Efficiency: Underground environments provide a more stable temperature range, enabling efficient energy storage and generation. This uninterrupted thermal stability can significantly increase the efficiency of systems that rely on geothermal energy or utilize underground geothermal heat pumps.
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