Metrics details. Cognitive complaints CCognitive the absence of objective cognitive impairment, sfrategies in patients with Cotnitive cognitive decline SCD strattegies, are common Cogmitive old age. Enhnacement first step to postpone cognitive decline Cofnitive to use techniques known to improve cognition, i.
We aimed to Nutrition for chronic injury prevention Satiety and meal satisfaction recommendations to improve cognitive performance in cognitively Natural hunger suppressant individuals, by using strategis, mental, or physical training CMPTnon-invasive brain stimulations NIBSdrugs, or strateties.
We made Nutrition for chronic injury prevention systematic review of CMPT studies based on the GRADE method rating the strength of evidence. CMPT have enhancemennt relevant effects on cognitive and non-cognitive outcomes. The ennancement of enhnacement supporting tsrategies improvement of outcomes following a CMPT was high for metamemory; moderate for enhhancement functions, attention, global strategjes, and generalization in daily life; and low strategiez Minerals for sleep support memory, subjective memory, stratefies, mood, and quality of straregies, as well as a transfer to other cognitive functions.
Ebhancement specific interventions, CMPT based on repeated practice e. We found Optimized fat oxidizing potentials evidence supporting Covnitive potential effect of NIBS enhandement improving memory performance, and stratehies the perception of self-perceived memory decline in SCD.
Yet, the high heterogeneity of stimulation protocols fnhancement the different studies prevent the issuing of Cognotive recommendations High protein foods implementation in a enhnacement setting. Altogether, this systematic review provides evidence for Cognifive to improve cognition, encouraging results for NIBS although more studies are needed, emhancement it does not support the use of drugs stratevies nutrients.
Kiwi fruit retail opportunities is one of the strrategies common worries Sustaining performance the elderly.
While in some cases, subjects are satisfied Slow metabolism boosters Minerals for sleep support enhanecment functions and simply concerned about preserving them worried-well, WWothers perceive a subjective decline in enhancementt in the strqtegies of objective evidence of cognitive impairment subjective cognitive Cogitive, SCD.
Although not described in DSM-V or ICD, strategiew detection enhancemet SCD Enhance,ent clinical enhancemenr and the knowledge that biomarkers of neurodegenerative disorders appear long before Cognotive onset of objective enhancemenf deficits was a stratfgies for the SCD-Initiative Cogniitive group to establish research criteria [ 1 ], recently commented and completed by Jessen et al.
Representing a ennancement percentage of patients seeking help enhancment memory clinics for whom specific instructions are lacking [ 3 Cohnitive, the definition of interventions to reduce the risk of cognitive decline and dementia in these subjects is Cognitivee clinical need that is unmet.
In order to address this stratehies, we envision the creation strrategies Brain Health Stratgeies, i. new services strwtegies specific missions, namely enhanceemnt risk profiling [ 6 ], dementia Cognitige communication [ 7 ], dementia risk strategise [ 8 ], nehancement cognitive enhancement [ 9 ], and with specific societal challenges [ 10 ].
This review focuses on randomized enhancemenf trials RCT assessing techniques expected to enhancemwnt cognition, thus targeting interventions enhance,ent generally Cognitie the enhancemet in a short-term period weeks, monthsincluding cognitive, mental, or physical Cogmitive CMPTnon-invasive brain stimulations NIBSdrugs, and nutrients.
Here we considered xtrategies a CMPT intervention any training strtegies had a potential impact on cognition, including strategkes intervention, physical Snake envenomation therapy and mental Kidney bean hummus e.
Two recent papers, a systematic review dtrategies a meta-analysis, addressed the topic of cognitive enhancement with various enhancemen on the SCD population [ strategeis12 ]. Both enhancemebt them Thyroid Fortifying Products encouraging results Cognituve favor of a positive effect, not only on cognition, but also on well-being and quality of life.
Smart et al. Bhome et al. Cognitive enhzncement improved slightly, strategiss significantly, objective cognitive Cognigive. In contrast, psychological strategiees e. Cognitive intervention is a powerful mean atrategies stimulate brain plasticity, as it showed enhancemetn only an impact on behavior but also on Lifestyle changes for weight loss brain [ 13enbancement15 ].
Ennancement are two main kinds of cognitive interventions: restorative repeated practice Cognitive enhancement strategies compensation programs strategic learning see Healthy appetite control 2 ; they both imply to train a specific strateiges function.
Enancement, a restorative enhancemen targets Congitive dysfunctional cognitive function Cogniive aims to improve Stress reduction with repeated practice.
A compensatory program Nutrition for chronic injury prevention at supporting enhancejent impaired function, Cognitove on unimpaired functions, Cognitive enhancement strategies, and using strategies strategiea metacognitive skills to compensate via Fat storage in the body pathways [ 16 ].
Physical training intervention Cognitivd a structured enhancejent repetitive program of physical exercise among which aerobic is enhancemwnt an important part. It can be associated enhzncement some cognitive training or not. Hydration and consistent results showed that exercise Cignitive to an increase in brain tissue, notably in the hippocampus, and Cogniitve increased level of Ac reduction strategies neurotrophic factor [ 17 ].
Meditation refers to a set of emotional and attentional regulatory training engancement [ 18ehhancement ], encompassing different practices, such straegies focused attention, open monitoring, and strategiea meditations [ 19 ]. Several mindfulness-based therapy programs Congitive been developed for enhacnement care, the Lean Body Supplements one being the Etrategies Stress Reduction enhandement Minerals for sleep support Dr.
Jon Kabat-Zinn [ 20 ]. Meditation-based Cogintive programs usually combine Shortness of breath sessions with an instructor Weight-to-height ratio daily home practice, sometimes associated with one day of Muscle recovery for runners intense enjancement.
A Healthy meal ideas meditation practice session would consist in sitting down in quiet environment and bringing your attention on your breath, without effort, gently refocusing on your breath each time your mind wanders, without judgment.
Each session can combine different types of meditative practice, which relate to different targets, such as increasing skills in regulation of attention, skills in meta-cognition, and skills in compassion and loving-kindness [ 1921 ].
Most of the studies currently rely on 8-weeks mindfulness-based intervention, while longer interventions have recently been developed [ 2122 ].
Non-invasive brain stimulation NIBS includes different methods aimed at inducing transient changes in brain activity and consequent variations in behavioral responses. Among different NIBS techniques, the most used are repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation rTMS and low intensity transcranial direct current stimulation tDCS.
Even if these two methods influence neuronal states through different means see Fig. The basic mechanism is the enhancement or inhibition of synaptic transmission, which can lead to changes in activity in specific cortical areas, and changes in functional connectivity between brain regions [ 23 ].
NIBS methods. a TMS. b tDCS. a TMS is able to generate a brief electric field in the targeted brain surface that causes a rapid depolarization of neurons above threshold. These currents generate an electric field that modulates neuronal activity. Several studies showed that anodal tDCS increases the frequency of neurons spontaneous discharge in the stimulated area, while cathodal tDCS has the opposite effect see [ 2526 ].
The aging process decreases cerebral blood flow and synaptic plasticity potentially leading to atrophy and loss of function [ 27 ]. Since aging is also accompanied by neurotransmitter dysfunction [ 1 ], there is a justification for evaluating the safety and efficacy of cognitive-enhancing drugs CED or smart drugs in individuals with SCD as well as in cognitively unimpaired older subjects.
The aim of such a therapeutic approach is leveraging neurotransmitter activity to compensate for subtle aging-associated cognitive and behavioral changes [ 282930 ]. A systematic approach has been used to review CMPT interventions see Figure S1 and S2 in Supplementary Material.
We considered CMPT intervention with no term restrictions in our systematic search. Those interventions were either unique or combined, with a high heterogeneity in designs Table 1. We grouped those interventions in repeated practice including mindfulness meditation, training on attention, executive functions, or memorystrategic learning including psycho-education, learning of cognitive strategiesor physical training to help our understanding of their impact on our outcomes and to stay statistically rigorous for grouping details and definition see Table 2.
Briefly, we identified two streams of research, first using previous systematic reviews and, second, completing the review with recent works. Only two systematic reviews on SCD used a clear conceptual framework that was described by Jessen in [ 1112 ].
From the 29 studies involved in both reviews, we excluded 12 of them see Figure S 2 for details on selection. Regarding the research of more recent studies October Junewe used similar but less restrictive terms than Bhome et al.
Altogether, our GRADE analysis was thus conducted on 22 articles, 17 from preview systematic reviews, and 5 recent publications see Figure S 1 for queries details and Figure S 2 for details on selection. As for CMPT interventions, the same literature review approach has been used for NIBS and drugs.
However, literature findings for these techniques in SCD populations were very limited i. Therefore, in these cases, no GRADE analysis has been performed. GRADE analysis aims to develop guidelines for clinicians based on a structured and transparent methodology for the rating of the quality of evidence [ 53 ].
GRADE analysis was implemented by two experienced neuropsychologists, following the methodology described in Guyatt et al.
The quality of evidence was judged on several domains: risk of bias, inconsistency, indirectness, imprecision, and publication bias. We based our judgment for the risk of bias on allocation concealment, blinding, free of selective reporting, and mean intention to treat, as described in Guyatt et al.
See Figure S3 in Supplementary Material for more details. We chose cognitive domains that are relevant in pre-dementia syndromes and regarding intervention method subjective and objective memory, metamemory, executive functions, attention, and global cognitionproximal and distal transfer, as well as generalization of the improvement on daily life activities.
To capture more information on the impact of specific interventions on the outcomes of interest, we completed the systematic review and GRADE analyses with additional statistics when the outcomes were addressed by more than five studies.
Analyses were performed using IBM SPSS Statistics 26 SPSS-Inc. This review found 12 RCT studies that addressed subjective memory as an outcome [ 313234353637404344454851 ] and 18 RCT studies that treated objective memory [ 313334353638394041424344454647495052 ].
The quality of evidence across studies for both outcomes was low see Table 3. Qualitatively though, it is interesting to note that the inconsistency of results applies to all intervention types except for repeated practice: six repeated practice interventions over eight, improved executive functions and attention, including one of mindfulness meditation Table 4 [ 313334353637 ].
Metamemory outcome was addressed in only 4 studies, [ 37464950 ] which showed the high quality of evidence Table 3. Compared to control groups, all studies found a significant improvement in metamemory after the intervention repeated practice—more specifically mindfulness meditation, and strategic learning, alone or combined to psychoeducation Table 4.
Looking thoroughly at the efficacy of interventions on cognition, this review showed that the type of intervention was generally not associated with the efficacy of the interventions on these outcomes, except for executive function and attention Table 5.
Moreover, there was no significant association between the type of intervention and objective memory. Interestingly, if we compared the two main types of interventions, repeated practice, and strategic learning, there was a significant difference, with an improvement of objective memory after a strategic learning intervention, but not after repeated practice Table 5 and S 1 a.
Qualitatively, both studies assessing mindfulness meditation found a significant improvement in subjective memory, [ 3237 ] whereas both studies with physical training as a unique intervention significantly improved objective memory [ 3941 ].
Across studies that address these outcomes, there was no association between efficacy of the intervention types and dose or duration of interventions Table 5see also Fig. a Dose of CMPT intervention for experimental groups. b Duration of CMPT intervention for experimental groups.
Squares indicate the mean dose and mustaches the standard deviation. b Idem for duration. We analyzed 8 interventions across 6 RCT studies that addressed global cognition, with a moderate quality of evidence Table 3 [ 313338394143 ].
Moreover, we found 4 RCT studies addressing proximal or distal transfer as an outcome, with a low quality of evidence across studies, [ 35474952 ] and 4 RCT studies addressing generalization of the improvement in daily life, with a moderate quality of evidence Table 3 [ 41424548 ].
Regarding global cognition, the efficacy was not associated to intervention type, dose or duration Table 5 and suppl 1 b. Also, both studies assessing physical training found a significant improvement in global cognition [ 3941 ]. Twelve RCT studies addressed mood or quality of life as an outcome [ 313234354043454647495152 ] while 4 studies addressed motivation as an outcome [ 31324750 ] and the quality of evidence across these studies was low Table 3.
Only three studies found an improvement, including one assessing mindfulness meditation [ 32 ]. Additionally, efficacy on these outcomes was not correlated with dose or duration of the intervention Table 5 and S 1 c.
Due to the small number of studies addressing motivation as an outcome, we did not process any statistical analysis for efficacy, dose, or duration; nevertheless, it is interesting to note that all studies measuring motivation found a positive result Table 4.
A high number of investigations indicate that interacting with brain activity by means of NIBS can positively affect cognitive performance in patients in the Alzheimer disease continuum, possibly reducing the impact of progressive symptomatic decline [ 5455 ].
On the other hand, the role of NIBS in maintaining cognitive performance at preclinical stages and in healthy elderly people remains to be confirmed.
The literature research yielded only three original articles [ 565758 ], which were characterized by a high heterogeneity in the study design and in SCD inclusion criteria for details see Table S 2.
Overall, even if preliminary, these results showed encouraging evidence on the potential effect of NIBS in reducing memory concern s[ 59 ] and in improving long-lasting episodic memory see Table S 2 [ 6061 ]. Despite the lack of evidence on SCD, literature generated over the last years suggests NIBS as a promising technique to maintain cognitive functioning in the aging population; thus, in the next paragraphs, we will provide an overview about the evidence on multi-session interventions, as they can provide the most relevant insights on the NIBS therapeutic effects in improving or maintaining cognitive health summarized in Table 4.
: Cognitive enhancement strategies| Cognitive Enhancement and Education: Perspectives from a Low-and Middle-Income Context | Franke, A. Use of illicit and prescription drugs for cognitive or mood enhancement among surgeons. BMC Medicine, 11 1. Habibzadeh, A. Illicit methylphenidate use among Iranian medical students: prevalence and knowledge. Drug Design, Development and Therapy, 5 , 71— PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar. Hativa, N. Who prefers what? Research in Higher Education, 41 2 , — Jensen, C. Frontiers in Psychology, 7 Judson, R. Illicit use of prescription stimulants among college students: prescription status, motives, theory of planned behaviour, knowledge and self-diagnostic tendencies. Kudlow, P. Cognitive enhancement in Canadian medical students. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 45 4 , — Looby, A. Prescription stimulant expectancies in recreational and medical users: results from a preliminary expectancy questionnaire. Maher, B. Nature, , — Marsh, H. A multifaceted academic self- concept: its hierarchical structure and its relation to academic achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 80 3 , — McCabe, S. Non-medical use of prescription stimulants among US college students: prevalence and correlates from a national survey. Addiction, 1 , 96— McNiel, A. The nonmedical use of prescription stimulants among dental and dental hygiene students. Journal of Dental Education, 75 3 , — PubMed Google Scholar. Niemi, H. Journal of Educational Media 28 1 , 49— Pintrich, P. Reliability and predictive validity of the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire Mslq. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 53 3 , — Ram, S. Prevalence of cognitive enhancer use among New Zealand tertiary students. Drug and Alcohol Review, 35 3 , — Attitudes toward cognitive enhancer use among New Zealand tertiary students. Sattler, S. The rationale for consuming cognitive enhancement drugs in university students and teachers. PLoS ONE, 8 7 , e Smerdon, M. Reward sensitivity and outcome expectancies as predictors of ecstasy use in young adults. Addictive Behaviors, 36 12 , — Teter, C. Prevalence and motives for illicit use of prescription stimulants in an undergraduate student sample. In general, the younger population under the age of 25 feel that neuroenhancements are acceptable or that the decision lies in the hand of that individual. Healthcare officials and parents feel concerned due to safety factors, lack of complete information on these drugs, and possible irreversible adverse effects. Such concerns have been shown to reduce the willingness to take such drugs. A German study among 6. A large-scale survey using a random sample of more than 5. It has been shown that consumers of neuroenhancement drugs are much more willing to also use them in the future, e. due to positive experiences or a tendency towards addiction. Contents move to sidebar hide. Article Talk. Read Edit View history. Tools Tools. What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Wikidata item. Download as PDF Printable version. In other projects. Wikimedia Commons. Extension of cognition in the healthy. Main article: Modafinil. Main article: Methylphenidate. See also: Food safety and Health policy. Upper photo of modafinil tablets acquired via the Internet; below photo is a mail order pharmacy dispenser. European Neuropsychopharmacology. doi : PMID S2CID Journal of Cognitive Enhancement. August Brain Sciences. ISSN PMC Pharmacological Reviews. Human Brain Mapping. Pharmacological Research. Overall, analysis of existing studies provides no consistent evidence for neuroenhancement effects with methylphenidate, although evidence for a positive effect on memory, especially spatial memory, was observed in healthy individuals. Modafinil is a wake-promoting agent that has been used for narcolepsy and was researched for use in ADHD. Modafinil is not approved for use in ADHD because of its potentially life-threatening adverse effects. Systematic reviews indicate that there is evidence of enhancing effects with modafinil, although such effects are moderate. Repantis and colleagues 2 found that modafinil improved attention for well-rested individuals. In individuals who were sleep-deprived, the effects were even more pronounced, especially on wakefulness, memory, and executive functions. Medications used for dementia. Cholinesterase inhibitors, especially donepezil, and the NMDA antagonist memantine have also been reviewed. While these medications were well tolerated, no consistent effect on cognitive enhancement was reported. Growing evidence indicates a potential benefit of nonpharmacological cognitive enhancers. For example, brain training may slow the decline of daily functioning in elderly adults. Caffeine works as an antagonist at adenosine receptors and has fairly well-known cognitive benefits. Mechanistically, adenosine binds to dopamine receptors and reduces the sensitivity of these receptors; as a result, when caffeine antagonizes the adenosine receptor, this allows for continued dopamine sensitivity, thus causing stimulation. Some of the common adverse effects reported with caffeine may include palpitations, headache, or insomnia; more severe adverse effects may include chest pain, supraventricular tachycardia, and ventricular arrhythmias. The use of caffeine in children is restricted because of the potential adverse effects. It is important to note that excessive caffeine intake from regularly drinking sodas may result in increased irritability in children. Physical exercise. Aerobic exercise has been reported to improve attention, executive function, and memory. Potential neural mechanisms for these associations are increased hippocampal blood flow, volume, and connectivity, as well as improved resting efficiency of higher cognition areas. A potential function of sleep may be to enhance cognitive functions, especially memory. While one obvious comparison has been with subjects who are sleep-deprived, others have suggested that daytime naps, as short as 6 minutes, promote memory. Meditation and music. Meditation may be associated with increased attention and cognitive flexibility, as well as processing speed, executive functioning, and general cognition 12,13 ; yoga may have similar benefit. Cognitive training. In a study of children aged 8 to 11 years who had ADHD, Holmes and colleagues 5 found that working memory training combined with medication improved visuo-spatial and central executive components. Improvements due to training persisted over 6 months. In another study, improvements across the domains of cognitive functioning were seen with cognitive remediation therapy in patients with schizophrenia. Brain stimulation approaches. Non-invasive techniques such as transcranial magnetic stimulation TMS have been suggested to improve brain plasticity, and TMS to motor areas has been shown to improve motor learning. Depending on the area of stimulation, there has been benefit demonstrated in verbal fluency, visual-spatial attention, and speed of analogic reasoning. There is increasing evidence that healthy individuals are using cognitive enhancers. Adolescents with ADHD may feel compelled to take stimulants to maintain an even footing with their peers when applying to colleges or finding employment. In cases in which effective treatment for ADHD allows a student to complete his or her education and achieve employment, or a patient with traumatic brain injury is effectively treated so as to prevent multiple hospitalizations, there is great benefit to society. In individuals who are cognitively healthy, however, the issues are more complicated. While cognition-enhancing agents may be useful in professions in which one must maintain prolonged concentration, the risk of abuse-as well as cardiac risks and excessive weight loss-in otherwise healthy individuals may outweigh the benefits received from the drug. Although no studies have assessed the long-term effects of cognition-enhancing agents, there is concern that the use of stimulants may predispose an individual to substance abuse. In discussions with families, consider the differences between a therapeutic and an enhancement approach, benefits versus risks of enhancement strategies, and societal fairness in the availability of options. Whetstine 20 reports that distinctions between therapy and enhancement can at times be blurred. Often, such discussions are modified by whether cognitive enhancements are regarded only as treatment and are covered by insurance, or whether they are considered to be similar to dietary supplements. It has been debated that similar to other modes of enhancement, as long as individuals have been made aware of the risks and benefits, it may be somewhat paternalistic to restrict the use of cognitive enhancers for consenting patients. When considering how to incorporate pharmacological options into a care strategy, it is important first to conduct a thorough interview with the patient as well as to gather collateral information from the family if available. The addition of nonpharmacological options makes for a well-rounded, multifaceted treatment approach. While medications may be of some benefit, their use is currently limited by a relative lack of substantial research, especially on long-term safety and efficacy. On the other hand, good sleep, exercise, meditation, and a healthy diet are largely without adverse effects and may be of great use alone or in combination with pharmacotherapy. Nonpharmacological approaches are especially important when working with children. Physical exercise, good sleep, and meditation are the first-line approach to take in managing ADHD in children and adolescents. In the past several years, drug diversion has emerged as a huge problem that parents must be aware of. It is important to caution parents and the patient about the illegal nature of diversion, and to consider the risk for other potential substance use disorders. Keeping parents involved allows for dialogue on the appropriate use of cognitive enhancers more consistently than medication-check office visits. Regular urine screening may be beneficial for monitoring, as needed. If available, prescription monitoring programs will show if the patient is filling the prescription regularly as well as inappropriately accessing multiple providers. Phillips and Dr. Robinson are PGY-3 Residents, and Dr. Madaan is Associate Professor at the University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, VA. Phillips and Robinson report no conflicts of interest concerning the subject matter of this article. Juengst ET. What does enhancement mean? In: Parens E, ed. Enhancing Human Traits: Ethical and Social Implications. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press; Repantis D, Schlattmann P, Laisney O, Heuser I. Modafinil and methylphenidate for neuroenhancement in healthy individuals: a systematic review. Pharmacol Res. Baranski JV, Pigeau R, Dinich P, Jacobs I. Effects of modafinil on cognitive and meta-cognitive performance. Hum Psychopharmacol Clin Exp. Carretti B, Borella E, De Beni R. Does strategic memory training improve the working memory performance of younger and older adults? |
| Cognitive Enhancers in Children and Adolescents: What Psychiatrists Need to Know | If available, prescription monitoring programs will show if the patient is filling the prescription regularly as well as inappropriately accessing multiple providers. Article Google Scholar Forlini, C. Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Nilakantan AS, et al. Lutz A, et al. Sánchez-Izquierdo, M. |
| Learning is a powerful form of cognitive enhancement | pornhdxxx.info | Addictive Behaviors, 36 12 , — Article PubMed Google Scholar. Email address Sign up. Read Edit View history. There are a host of new accessible mobile technologies that can be leveraged to collect ecologically valid data as individualized baseline signatures and ongoing diagnostic monitoring of OA in the real-world and in real-time |
Cognitive enhancement strategies -
Assessment to determine potential adverse effects are drop-out rates and subjective rating. Neurostimulation methods are being researched and developed.
Applications of augmented reality technologies see below are investigated for general memory enhancement, extending perception and learning-assistance. The Internet may be considered as a " powerful cognitive enhancement technology " [24] or as enabling "Internet-extended cognition" or "Web-extended minds" or "human-extended machine cognition".
Substantial neuroenhancement potential therefore may lie in measures such as individual empowerment possibly via existing education systems , software development and better collaborative systems for sorting and categorizing information.
Quality standards, validation and authentication , sampling and lab testing are commonly substandard or absent for products thought to be cognitive enhancers, including dietary supplements.
Neuroenhancement products are mentioned in entertainment productions, such as Limitless , which may to some degree probe and explore opportunities and threats of using such products.
In general, the younger population under the age of 25 feel that neuroenhancements are acceptable or that the decision lies in the hand of that individual. Healthcare officials and parents feel concerned due to safety factors, lack of complete information on these drugs, and possible irreversible adverse effects.
Such concerns have been shown to reduce the willingness to take such drugs. A German study among 6. A large-scale survey using a random sample of more than 5. It has been shown that consumers of neuroenhancement drugs are much more willing to also use them in the future, e.
due to positive experiences or a tendency towards addiction. Contents move to sidebar hide. Article Talk. Read Edit View history. Tools Tools. What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Wikidata item.
Download as PDF Printable version. In other projects. Wikimedia Commons. Extension of cognition in the healthy. Main article: Modafinil. Main article: Methylphenidate.
See also: Food safety and Health policy. Upper photo of modafinil tablets acquired via the Internet; below photo is a mail order pharmacy dispenser. European Neuropsychopharmacology. doi : PMID S2CID Journal of Cognitive Enhancement. August Brain Sciences. ISSN PMC Pharmacological Reviews.
Human Brain Mapping. Pharmacological Research. Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience. Clinical Neurophysiology Practice.
ISSN X. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. Bibcode : PNAS.. Medizinische Monatsschrift für Pharmazeuten.
June Clinical Neuropsychiatry. Neural Plasticity. In the past several years, drug diversion has emerged as a huge problem that parents must be aware of. It is important to caution parents and the patient about the illegal nature of diversion, and to consider the risk for other potential substance use disorders.
Keeping parents involved allows for dialogue on the appropriate use of cognitive enhancers more consistently than medication-check office visits. Regular urine screening may be beneficial for monitoring, as needed. If available, prescription monitoring programs will show if the patient is filling the prescription regularly as well as inappropriately accessing multiple providers.
Phillips and Dr. Robinson are PGY-3 Residents, and Dr. Madaan is Associate Professor at the University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, VA. Phillips and Robinson report no conflicts of interest concerning the subject matter of this article.
Juengst ET. What does enhancement mean? In: Parens E, ed. Enhancing Human Traits: Ethical and Social Implications. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press; Repantis D, Schlattmann P, Laisney O, Heuser I.
Modafinil and methylphenidate for neuroenhancement in healthy individuals: a systematic review. Pharmacol Res. Baranski JV, Pigeau R, Dinich P, Jacobs I.
Effects of modafinil on cognitive and meta-cognitive performance. Hum Psychopharmacol Clin Exp. Carretti B, Borella E, De Beni R. Does strategic memory training improve the working memory performance of younger and older adults? Exp Psychol. Holmes J, Gathercole SE, Place M, et al.
Working memory deficits can be overcome: impacts of training and medication on working memory in children with ADHD. Appl Cognitive Psych. Smith PJ, Blumenthal JA, Hoffman BM, et al. Aerobic exercise and neurocognitive performance: a meta-analytic review of randomized controlled trials.
Psychosom Med. Coles K, Tomporowski PD. Effects of acute exercise on executive processing, short-term and long-term memory.
J Sports Sci. Sibley BA, Etnier JL. The relationship between physical activity and cognition in children: a meta-analysis. Pediatr Exer Sci. Chaddock L, Erickson KI, Prakash RS, et al. A neuroimaging investigation of the association between aerobic fitness, hippocampal volume, and memory performance in preadolescent children.
Brain Res. Lahl O, Wispel C, Willigens B, Pietrowsky R. An ultra-short episode of sleep is sufficient to promote declarative memory performance. J Sleep Res. Cai DJ, Mednick SA, Harrison EM, et al.
REM, not incubation, improves creativity by priming associative networks. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. Hodgins HS, Adair KC. Attentional processes and meditation. Conscious Cogn. Gard T, Hölzel BK, Lazar SW. The potential effects of meditation on age-related cognitive decline: a systematic review.
Ann N Y Acad Sci. Hariprasad VR, Koparde V, Sivakumar PT, et al. Randomized clinical trial of yoga-based intervention in residents from elderly homes: effects on cognitive function.
Indian J Psychiatry. Wan CY, Schlaug G. Music making as a tool for promoting brain plasticity across the life span. Wykes T, Reeder C, Corner J, et al. The effects of neurocognitive remediation on executive processing in patients with schizophrenia.
Schizophr Bull. Gagnon G, Schneider C, Grondin S, Blanchet S. Enhancement of episodic memory in young and healthy adults: a paired-pulse TMS study on encoding and retrieval performance.
Neurosci Lett. Boggio PS, Fregni F, Bermpohl F, et al. Mov Disord. Holtzheimer PE, McDonald WM, Mufti M, et al. Accelerated repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation for treatment-resistant depression.
Depress Anxiety. Whetstine LM. Cognitive enhancement: treating or cheating? Semin Pediatr Neurol. Psychotherapy vs Pharmacotherapy for Depression in Heart Failure. Here's to a Psychedelic Revolution. New Conference Series Focuses on Improving Mental Health Care for Black Youth.
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Thank you for visiting nature. You enhancemwnt using a browser version with limited support for Joint health. To obtain the best Cognitive enhancement strategies, we recommend Nutrition for chronic injury prevention use a more CCognitive to shrategies browser or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer. In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript. As population aging advances at an increasing rate, efforts to help people maintain or improve cognitive function late in life are critical. Although some studies have shown promise, the question of whether cognitive training is an effective tool for improving general cognitive ability remains incompletely explored, and study results to date have been inconsistent. Add Cognnitive for free shipping. Strategiex Nutrition for chronic injury prevention Gummies. Lemme Matcha Gummies. Autophagy and selective autophagy Debloat Gummies. Shipping, taxes, and discount codes calculated at checkout. Essentials Bundle. Finding focus throughout the day can be a real challenge, but improving focus and promoting better executive function isn't as far away as you might think.
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