The initial training mode is mainly based on the paper-pencil intelligence tests and the techniques of enhancing memory. For instance, researchers provide the participants with some scattered numbers and letters and ask them to connect the numbers and letters in alphabetical order by drawing lines Jobe et al.

With the popularity of electronic devices, standardized computer-based cognitive training programs have been gradually developed. Computer-based cognitive training has advantages of high efficiency and high sensitivity, which means its training materials can be coded in the computer and automatically presented to the participants, and the degree of training difficulty can be self-adaptive according to the performance of the participants Dresler et al.

Also, computer-based cognitive training can contribute to the moderation of cognitive disorders in dementia, particularly in the early stages of AD, as have been confirmed by several researches Preece and Maloney-Krichmar, ; Savitch and Zaphiris, Although the cognitive trainings are able to improve some specific cognitive functions, training every domain of cognition is difficult and time-consuming.

Thereby, cognitive decline in the elderly is still widespread. In this case, the effect of training on non-trained cognitive functions i. The transfer effect refers to the ability that individuals can use the knowledge and skills learned in one scenario to achieve different goals in other scenarios.

And it can be differentiated into near-transfer effects post-training improvement in tasks similar to the training tasks and far-transfer effects post-training improvement in tasks that are different from the training tasks in nature or in appearance; Barnett and Ceci, Far-transfer effects occur when two different tasks share an underlying processing component and neuroanatomical areas or neural circuits Jonides, According to the transfer effects, researchers attempted to transfer the effects of cognitive training to other cognitive abilities to help MCI elder people adapt to their daily lives and solve corresponding problems.

Researchers trained hearing processing speed of the MCI elderly and found that the participants not only showed faster processing speed but also had a higher accuracy rate in the auditory signal detection task. Besides, the participants also showed enhancement in memory Anderson et al.

More surprisingly, cognitive training also showed a transfer effect in physical activities Verghese et al. For instance, after the Stroop training, MCI participants not only showed enhancement in working memory and executive functions but also had better performance in terms of physical balance Li et al.

However, there are also studies that did not find transfer effect after training cognitive functions Dosher and Lu, And the sustainability of transfer effects after cognitive training is barely discussed.

There is no doubt that to explore the transfer effects in cognitive training is meaningful and imperative.

On one hand, if the transfer effects are accessible and sustainable, the efficiency of cognitive training will be greatly improved. In other words, elderly people with MCI only need to receive a small amount of training to get multi-domain benefits. On the other hand, the transfer effects of cognitive training can overcome many training obstacles, such as disability and physical aging.

That means researchers are able to help the bedridden elder people e. The main objective of this study is to examine whether single-domain cognitive training working memory training has a transfer effect on un-trained cognitive functions, based on the effectiveness of cognitive training.

The reason of choosing working memory is because it is a fundamental cognitive function that underpins other complex cognitive functions Morrison and Chein, And the cognitive functions might be affected as follows see Figure 1. Hypothesis 1 training effect : working memory would significantly improve after cognitive training.

Hypothesis 2 transfer effect : the un-trained cognitive function executive function, verbal ability and reasoning ability and comprehensive ability ability of daily living would significantly improve after training.

Hypothesis 3 sustainability : the training effect and the transfer effect can maintain for at least 3 months. The present study was approved by the Human Subjects Review Committee of Zhejiang University. Participants consisted of MCI elderly, over 60 years old, living in Nanxing Street, Shangcheng District, Hangzhou City, and participants were recruited via holding recruitment sessions at older adult communities.

With no significant visual or auditory impairment. Meeting the MCI diagnostic criteria of the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke Alzheimer Disease and Related Disorders NINCDS-ADRDA; McKhann et al. Noticed and freely to give informed consent.

Meeting the dementia diagnostic criteria of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fifth edition DSM-V; American Psychiatric Association, and NINCDS-ADRDA.

Taking antipsychotics, or stopping for less than 3 months. Participating in other cognitive training projects. Refusing to participate in the study. After recruitment, there were 96 individuals who met the criteria while 31 participants were declined to participate because of lack of time for training or fulfilling 3-months follow-up.

All participants had signed up the informed consent and committed not to attend any other cognitive training activity during the present study. If an individual was on medication i. During the cognitive training, one participant fell off lost contact , and two participants in the control group discontinued the study due to death see in Figure 2.

According to the results of independent-sample t -test and χ 2 test, there was no significant difference in the population and sociological variables between the two groups see Table 1.

Each time the cognitive training group received training, the researchers or community workers organized the control group to conduct activities Lin et al.

The activities mainly included watching TV dramas, watching news, blood pressure measurement, and chatting, etc. The present study collected cognitive evaluation data at three time-points, before cognitive training T1 , after cognitive training T2 , and 3-month follow-up T3.

The flowchart is presented in Figure 2. The cognitive training contains four main tasks:. Then in the recognition phase, participants were asked to determine whether the new image has been studied before. The object tracking task: it required participants to pay attention to the trajectory of one or more targets the target can be a simple graphic or a physical picture moving on the screen.

After a period of time, the object disappears, and participants were asked to select the previous position of target object before it disappears;.

Both object 1 and objects 2 are simple graphic or physical objects. After clocking object 1, objects 2 immediately disappeared, then participants were required to report the number of objects 2.

Cognitive assessments focused on working memory, executive function, reasoning ability, verbal ability, ability of daily living. In the present study, three subtests of digit span, digital symbol conversion and similarity test in the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Fourth Edition of Chinese version WAIS—IV; Wang et al.

The Weng and Huang's study was used to evaluate the ability of daily living Appendix 3. In addition, Montreal Cognitive Assessment MoCA; Hongji et al.

In order to avoid the impact of operational familiarity caused by computer training program, all cognitive assessments were conducted in the form of paper and pencil.

The data for the present study were analyzed by IBM SPSS The independent-sample t -test and χ 2 test were used to compare the baseline data of the cognitive training group with that of the control group.

The analysis of covariance ANCOVA was used to test the training effect. The data of cognitive assessments T2 was the dependent variable, and the grouping condition was the independent variable while controlling for age, gender and baseline data T0. Paired sample t -tests T2-T3 were used to test the maintenance of training effect.

And the ANCOVA was also used to test the long-term effect. The data of cognitive assessments T3 was the dependent variable, and the grouping condition was the independent variable, while age, gender and baseline data T1 were controlled for. The value of α is 0. By independent-sample t -test and χ 2 test, there were no significant differences in comprehensive cognitive function MoCA , working memory forward and backward digit span , executive function digital symbol conversion , verbal ability VFT , logic reasoning ability the similarity reasoning test , ADL between the cognitive training group and the control group at baseline see Table 2A.

Table 2A. Three time-points baseline, post-training and 3 months after training data of cognitive training group and control group. The ANCOVA was used to control the baseline, age, gender and education level of the participants. VFT, similarity reasoning test, and ADL scores were not significantly different see Table 2B.

Table 2B. Analysis of covariance ANCOVA data between cognitive training group and controlled group in T2. The scores of cognitive function and life ability at three times T1, T2 and T3 can be seen in Figure 3A. Among them, cognitive ability, such as working memory and executive function, had a decline trend after the cognitive training.

It is worth mentioning that the MoCA and ADL scores of the cognitive training group remained at a specific level from T2 to T3, but the MoCA and ADL reverse scoring scores of the control group continued to decrease.

These results indicate that the cognitive training mainly focused on working memory did not improve global cognitive function and ability of daily living, but there might be a long-term transfer effect. Figure 3. A Evaluation score in T1, T2 and T3. From left to right, the ordinates represent the score of Montreal Cognitive Assessment MoCA , digit span forward , digit span backward , digital symbol conversion and ability of daily living ADL.

Table 2C. Training effect in T2 and T3 paired sample t -tests, cognitive training group. In order to explore the delay effect, the ANCOVA was used to control the baseline, age, gender and education level of the participants.

Compared with the post-cognitive training T2 data, MoCA and ADL showed a grouping effect see Table 2D. Table 2D. ANCOVA data between cognitive training group and controlled group in T3.

It is difficult for cognitive training to train only one cognitive ability, for example, memory training must involve the use of attention resources, and computer operations also train exclusive function. In this case, the results of the general linear model cannot distinguish between the transfer effect and the training itself.

Therefore, a mediating effect model bootstrap analyses was used to explore the mediating effect of working memory on un-trained cognitive functions executive function and comprehensive ability ability of daily living after cognitive training, in order to verify the transfer effect.

The results indicated that cognitive training had no significant direct impact on ability of daily living and executive function. In the above model, there was a significant correlation between DLA and EF, which suggested that WM may not directly affect DLA, with EF as the mediator in the process.

Thus, another bootstrap analysis was used to explore the mediating effect of EF on the relation between WM and DLA see in Figure 3C. The present study used cognitive training on the community MCI elderly, mainly focusing on working memory. Then cognitive abilities and ability of daily living were evaluated to test the cognitive training effect, its maintenance and transfer effect of the cognition training.

The results showed that cognition training had a high degree of acceptance in the in-home MCI elderly population in urban communities, and the compliance in the cognitive training process was satisfactory. And the results also indicated that cognition training not only enhanced the performance of MCI elderly people in working memory tests but also had a significant transfer effect in executive function and ability of daily living.

In addition, the MCI elderly people in communities showed varying degrees of decline in memory, attention, executive function, verbal ability, and abstract thinking ability, among which the decline of memory function was the most notable.

For instance, in the delayed recall test, even after the relevant cue clues were given by the tester, all MCI participants could not fully recall the five words previously studied.

Therefore, the researchers believe that the decline of memory function is a vital risk factor of the transformation from MCI into dementia Gao et al. In the digit span task forward and backward , the cognitive training group and the control group showed significant differences after the cognitive training.

The above two tasks forward and backward mainly examined working memory ability of the participants, which was also the cognitive ability that the training mainly focused on.

The results indicated that the training not only improved the performance of participants in the same type of test but also improved other cognitive function of the participants to complete relevant tasks. It also showed that, for the working memory capacity of MCI elderly people, cognitive training has played a role in delaying the decline, which was also proved by the previous studies Dannhauser et al.

According to the results of the MoCA, MoCA is a very credible measurement of the cognitive functions for MCI elderly people, therefore it can effectively reflect the changes in the overall cognitive functions before and after the cognitive training Nasreddine et al.

The cognitive training used in the present study could effectively delay the decline of overall cognitive ability for MCI elderly people, which was supported by the result that the MoCA score tends to be stable. However, the improving effect on overall cognitive ability was not significant.

The MoCA scores of the training group did not exceed the critical points of cognitive health standards in the present study. The mediation model of the research results mostly excluded the possibility that training directly enhanced executive function, and supported the hypothesis that cognitive training has a transfer effect.

Cognitive training has a significant transfer effect on executive function conversion ability; Smith-Ray et al. The format of the First Name entered is not correct. Please enter a valid email address. There is an existing account associated with this email.

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Research has shown that regular physical exercise is one way to improve cognitive functions like memory recall, problem solving, concentration, and attention to detail. However, it is not clear if the physical aspect alone boosts your brain or if a combination of other factors — like the mental challenge of the activity, the frequency you do it, and the desire to improve — also contribute.

Take swimming, for example. It has obvious cardiovascular and muscle-building benefits, but also involves constant thinking, processing, and learning.

You have to be mindful of your breathing rhythm and how to properly execute strokes and kicks. You also can measure your expertise in terms of endurance and speed, which motivates you to practice your skills to be a better swimmer. A brain training activity doesn't always have to be exercise-related.

Much research has found that creative outlets like painting and other art forms, learning an instrument, doing expressive or autobiographical writing, and learning a language also can improve cognitive function.

A study in Gerontologist reviewed 31 studies that focused on how these specific endeavors affected older adults' mental skills and found that all of them improved several aspects of memory like recalling instructions and processing speed.

Pick one new activity. Devote your time and attention to only one additional activity, so you won't be tempted by other interests. Sign up for a class. Classes are a good way to learn the basics of any new activity, especially one that requires specific skills, like painting or music. Schedule practice time.

Don't focus on the amount of time you practice at first, but rather aim for consistency. Devote what time you can, but be firm with your commitment. Schedule it and do it. No matter which new activity you choose, make sure it follows three guidelines in order to maximize brain training, according to Dr.

You have to always challenge your brain in order for it to grow. This is why choosing a new activity is so beneficial. It engages your brain to learn something new and offers the chance to improve. Not up for a new endeavor?