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The purpose of this review is to define the concept of periodized nutrition also referred to as nutritional training and summarize the wide variety of methods available to athletes. The reader is referred to several other recent review articles that have discussed aspects of periodized nutrition in much more detail with primarily a focus on adaptations in the muscle.
The purpose of this review is not to discuss the literature in great detail but to clearly define the concept and to give a complete overview of the methods available, with an emphasis on adaptations that are not in the muscle. Whilst there is good evidence for some methods, other proposed methods are mere theories that remain to be tested.
The term nutritional training is sometimes used to describe the same methods and these terms can be used interchangeably. Article CAS Google Scholar. Burke LM, Angus DJ, Cox GR, Cummings NK, Febbraio MA, Gawthorn K, et al.
Effect of fat adaptation and carbohydrate restoration on metabolism and performance during prolonged cycling.
Havemann L, West SJ, Goedecke JH, Macdonald IA, St Clair Gibson A, Noakes TD, et al. Fat adaptation followed by carbohydrate loading compromises high-intensity sprint performance.
Stellingwerff T, Spriet LL, Watt MJ, Kimber NE, Hargreaves M, Hawley JA, et al. Decreased PDH activation and glycogenolysis during exercise following fat adaptation with carbohydrate restoration. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. Leckey JJ, Hoffman NJ, Parr EB, Devlin BL, Trewin AJ, Stepto NK, et al.
High dietary fat intake increases fat oxidation and reduces skeletal muscle mitochondrial respiration in trained humans. FASEB J. Burke LM, Hawley JA, Jeukendrup A, Morton JP, Stellingwerff T, Maughan RJ.
Toward a common understanding of diet-exercise strategies to manipulate fuel availability for training and competition preparation in endurance sport. Int J Sport Nutri Exercise Metabol.
Miller BF, Hamilton KL. A perspective on the determination of mitochondrial biogenesis. Am J Physiol-Endocrinol Metabol. Nielsen J, Gejl KD, Hey-Mogensen M, Holmberg HC, Suetta C, Krustrup P, et al.
Plasticity in mitochondrial cristae density allows metabolic capacity modulation in human skeletal muscle. Jacobs RA, Lundby C. Mitochondria express enhanced quality as well as quantity in association with aerobic fitness across recreationally active individuals up to elite athletes.
Pilegaard H, Keller C, Steensberg A, Helge JW, Pedersen BK, Saltin B, et al. Influence of pre-exercise muscle glycogen content on exercise-induced transcriptional regulation of metabolic genes. Pilegaard H, Osada T, Andersen LT, Helge JW, Saltin B, Neufer PD.
Substrate availability and transcriptional regulation of metabolic genes in human skeletal muscle during recovery from exercise.
Bartlett JD, Louhelainen J, Iqbal Z, Cochran AJ, Gibala MJ, Gregson W, et al. Reduced carbohydrate availability enhances exercise-induced p53 signaling in human skeletal muscle: implications for mitochondrial biogenesis. Am J Physiol Regulatory, Integrative Comparative Physiol.
Chan MH, McGee SL, Watt MJ, Hargreaves M, Febbraio MA. Altering dietary nutrient intake that reduces glycogen content leads to phosphorylation of nuclear p38 MAP kinase in human skeletal muscle: association with IL-6 gene transcription during contraction.
Cochran AJ, Little JP, Tarnopolsky MA, Gibala MJ. Carbohydrate feeding during recovery alters the skeletal muscle metabolic response to repeated sessions of high-intensity interval exercise in humans. J Applied Physiol Bethesda, Md : Wojtaszewski JF, MacDonald C, Nielsen JN, Hellsten Y, Hardie DG, Kemp BE, et al.
Regulation of 5'AMP-activated protein kinase activity and substrate utilization in exercising human skeletal muscle. Yeo WK, McGee SL, Carey AL, Paton CD, Garnham AP, Hargreaves M, et al.
Acute signalling responses to intense endurance training commenced with low or normal muscle glycogen. Exp Physiol. Lane SC, Camera DM, Lassiter DG, Areta JL, Bird SR, Yeo WK, et al. Effects of sleeping with reduced carbohydrate availability on acute training responses. Psilander N, Frank P, Flockhart M, Sahlin K.
Exercise with low glycogen increases PGC-1alpha gene expression in human skeletal muscle. Eur J Appl Physiol. Impey SG, Hearris MA, Hammond KM, Bartlett JD, Louis J, Close GL, et al. Fuel for the Work Required: A Theoretical Framework for Carbohydrate Periodization and the Glycogen Threshold Hypothesis.
Sports Med. Marcinko K, Steinberg GR. The role of AMPK in controlling metabolism and mitochondrial biogenesis during exercise. Hawley JA, Lundby C, Cotter JD, Burke LM. Maximizing cellular adaptation to endurance exercise in skeletal muscle.
Cell Metab. Kjøbsted R, Hingst JR, Fentz J, Foretz M, Sanz MN, Pehmøller C, et al. AMPK in skeletal muscle function and metabolism. Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar. Hansen AK, Fischer CP, Plomgaard P, Andersen JL, Saltin B, Pedersen BK.
Skeletal muscle adaptation: training twice every second day vs. training once daily. Journal of applied Physiol Bethesda, Md : Coffey VG, Zhong Z, Shield A, Canny BJ, Chibalin AV, Zierath JR, et al.
Early signaling responses to divergent exercise stimuli in skeletal muscle from well-trained humans. McConell GK, Wadley GD, Le Plastrier K, Linden KC.
Maher CG, Sherrington C, Herbert RD, Moseley AM, Elkins M. Reliability of the PEDro scale for rating quality of randomized controlled trials. Phys Ther. Yeo WK, Paton CD, Garnham AP, Burke LM, Carey AL, Hawley JA. Skeletal muscle adaptation and performance responses to once a day versus twice every second day endurance training regimens.
Hulston CJ, Venables MC, Mann CH, Martin C, Philp A, Baar K, et al. Training with low muscle glycogen enhances fat metabolism in well-trained cyclists.
Cox GR, Clark SA, Cox AJ, Halson SL, Hargreaves M, Hawley JA, et al. Daily training with high carbohydrate availability increases exogenous carbohydrate oxidation during endurance cycling.
Marquet LA, Brisswalter J, Louis J, Tiollier E, Burke LM, Hawley JA, et al. Enhanced endurance performance by periodization of carbohydrate intake: "sleep low" strategy.
Marquet LA, Hausswirth C, Molle O, Hawley JA, Burke LM, Tiollier E, et al. Periodization of carbohydrate intake: short-term effect on performance.
Google Scholar. Gejl KD, Thams LB, Hansen M, Rokkedal-Lausch T, Plomgaard P, Nybo L, et al. No superior adaptations to carbohydrate periodization in elite endurance athletes. Riis S, Møller AB, Dollerup O, Høffner L, Jessen N, Madsen K.
Acute and sustained effects of a periodized carbohydrate intake using the sleep-low model in endurance-trained males. Scand J Med Sci Sports. Higgins JPT, Thomas J, Chandler J, Cumpston M, Li T, Page MJ, et al. Citation Cochrane handbook for systematic reviews of interventions 2nd ed.
Chichester: Wiley; Book Google Scholar. Cashin AG, McAuley JH. Clinimetrics: physiotherapy evidence database PEDro scale. J Physiother. Cureton KJ, Sparling PB, Evans BW, Johnson SM, Kong UD, Purvis JW.
Effect of experimental alterations in excess weight on aerobic capacity and distance running performance. Med Sci Sports. CAS PubMed Google Scholar. Andrade-Souza VA, Ghiarone T, Sansonio A, Santos Silva KA, Tomazini F, Arcoverde L, et al.
Exercise twice-a-day potentiates markers of mitochondrial biogenesis in men. Gejl KD, Hvid LG, Frandsen U, Jensen K, Sahlin K, Ortenblad N.
Gejl KD, Vissing K, Hansen M, Thams L, Rokkedal-Lausch T, Plomgaard P, et al. Changes in metabolism but not myocellular signaling by training with CHO-restriction in endurance athletes. Physiol Rep. Impey SG, Hammond KM, Shepherd SO, Sharples AP, Stewart C, Limb M, et al.
Fuel for the work required: a practical approach to amalgamating train-low paradigms for endurance athletes. Perry CG, Lally J, Holloway GP, Heigenhauser GJ, Bonen A, Spriet LL. Repeated transient mRNA bursts precede increases in transcriptional and mitochondrial proteins during training in human skeletal muscle.
Granata C, Oliveira RSF, Little JP, Bishop DJ. Forty high-intensity interval training sessions blunt exercise-induced changes in the nuclear protein content of PGC-1α and p53 in human skeletal muscle.
Jensen L, Gejl KD, Ortenblad N, Nielsen JL, Bech RD, Nygaard T, et al. Carbohydrate restricted recovery from long term endurance exercise does not affect gene responses involved in mitochondrial biogenesis in highly trained athletes. Tønnessen E, Sylta Ø, Haugen TA, Hem E, Svendsen IS, Seiler S.
The road to gold: training and peaking characteristics in the year prior to a gold medal endurance performance.
Tønnessen E, Svendsen IS, Rønnestad BR, Hisdal J, Haugen TA, Seiler S. The annual training periodization of 8 world champions in orienteering. Int J Sports Physiol Performance. Melin AK, Heikura IA, Tenforde A, Mountjoy M.
Energy availability in athletics: health, performance, and physique. Int J Sport Nutri Exerc Metabol. Power Analysis: IRONMAN World Championships.
Bernard T, Hausswirth C, Le Meur Y, Bignet F, Dorel S, Brisswalter J. Distribution of power output during the cycling stage of a triathlon world cup. Padilla S, Mujika I, Orbañanos J, Santisteban J, Angulo F, José GJ. Exercise intensity and load during mass-start stage races in professional road cycling.
Download references. We would like to thank Anne Kær Gejl for her statistical assistance and Nathan B Morris for proofread of the paper. Also, we would like to thank Niels Ørtenblad, Hans-Christer Holmberg and Joachim Nielsen for providing advice during the conceptualization of the study.
Also, we appreciate and acknowledge Team Denmark for the support to the Danish Elite Endurance Performance Network DEEPn forming the basis for the present collaboration. KG and LN conceived the idea and conceptualized the review.
KG performed the initial literature search, while the subsequent study evaluation and selection was conducted by KG and LN. KG conducted the meta-analysis. KG and LN have both contributed to writing the manuscript. The authors declare that the content of this paper has not been published or submitted for publication elsewhere.
All authors have read and approved the final manuscript. Department of Sports Science and Clinical Biomechanics, University of Southern Denmark, Campusvej 55, , Odense, Denmark.
Department of Nutrition, Exercise and Sports, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark. You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar. Correspondence to Kasper Degn Gejl. Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material.
If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. Reprints and permissions. Gejl, K. Performance effects of periodized carbohydrate restriction in endurance trained athletes — a systematic review and meta-analysis.
J Int Soc Sports Nutr 18 , 37 Download citation. Bob Seebohar, MS, RD, CSSD, CSCS, METS Bob is a Board Certified Specialist in Sports Dietetics, the former Director of Sports Nutrition for the University of Florida and most recently served as a sport dietitian for the US Olympic Committee.
Proper nutrition for endurance athletes involves a concept called nutrition periodization. Nutrition periodization is matching your nutrition intake to your annual schedule, a topic in which Bob Seebohar specializes.
Bob is a Board Certified Specialist in Sports Dietetics, the former Director of Sports Nutrition for the University of Florida, and most recently served as a sport dietitian for the US Olympic Committee. Bob traveled to the Summer Olympic Games as a sport dietitian for the US Olympic Team and the personal sport dietitian for the Olympic Triathlon Team.
Bob has a bachelor's degree in Exercise and Sports Science, a master's degree in Health and Exercise Science and a second master's degree in Food Science and Human Nutrition. He is a registered dietitian, exercise physiologist, Certified Strength and Conditioning Specialist and a High Performance Triathlon Coach.
As a nutrition coach, Bob specializes in enhancing health and improving performance by improving metabolic efficiency and using nutrition periodization, which provides varying nutrition recommendations to each specific athlete based on training cycle changes and body composition and weight goals.
Bob currently consults as a sport dietitian for US Sailing Olympic and Paralympic sailors and the USA Triathlon National Team. Practicing what he preaches, Bob has been an athlete his entire life growing up playing competitive soccer.
In he turned to endurance sports and has competed in many endurance events including the Boston Marathon, six Ironman races, the Leadville mile trail race, the Leadville mile mountain bike race and in , Bob became a Leadman, completing all six of the Leadville endurance events in 7 weeks.
Currently, he is specializing in short course triathlon training and competition to see how fast he can get! Podcast Transcript. Nutrition Periodization for Endurance Athletes. Next Level Podcast with Host Tavis Piattoly, MS, RD, LD. In this podcast you will learn: Bob's career choice and what made him want to become a Sports Dietitian?
What lead him to having a passion for working with Endurance Athletes? Nutrition Periodization and how it applies to athletes?
Gut health and fiber of the Periodizationn Society of Antioxidant benefits Nutrition Nutrition periodization for endurance 18Enxurance number: 37 Cite this article. Metrics endurznce. Endurance athletes preiodization consume carbohydrate-rich Quinoa quiche recipe to allow for optimal performance during competitions and intense training. However, acute exercise studies have revealed that training or recovery with low muscle glycogen stimulates factors of importance for mitochondrial biogenesis in addition to favourable metabolic adaptations in trained athletes. Compromised training quality and particularly lower intensities in peak intervals seem to be a major drawback from dietary interventions with chronic carbohydrate CHO restriction. As your periovization training demands change with wndurance training objectives, your Nutrition periodization for endurance demands change as Gut health and fiber. The basic principle of Nutrition Nutrifion is simply that: changing your dietary consumption to match that of your training efforts. Periodizing your diet can be achieved on two levels. The first is the larger training block level of macro-cycles. The second is the smaller weekly level of day-to-day training in micro-cycles.
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