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Phytochemicals in functional foods -

In the case of xanthophylls, the majority is found in the form of carotenoid esters in plant material, and these esters need to be deacylated by GIT lipases prior to absorption.

However, recent studies suggest that they suffer re-esterification inside the organism Vulić et al. performed extensive research to assess the link between the simulated digestion and the bioactivity of encapsulated carotenoids isolated from red pepper waste.

While concluding there was a rapid initial release of carotenoids from the proteic matrix, there was a slighlty higher bioactivity observed for freeze-drying in comparison to spray-drying.

As a formulation method, encapsulation seemed to offer protection against pH changes and the activity of the digestive enzymes, overall rising the bioaccessibility and the bioactivity of the phytocompounds present in the matrix. Morover, the determination of antioxidant activity of carotenoids highlighted the fact that these compounds show higher activity in oil—water emulsions, acting as a protective layer against oxidation As previously stated, the formulation is highly important for foods fortified with carotenoids or nutraceuticals.

Lyu et al. In the DPPH assay, lutein and β-carotene were responsibile for the majoritiy of the activity and, for FRAP, the highest contribution was due to the content of cryptoxanthin and α-carotene. The study concluded that there is an increase in antioxidant activity as a result of adding corn oil and using powders with smaller particle size.

In the case of carotenoids, many studies showed that their release from the food matrix during gastrointestinal digestion results in a typical lower bioaccessibility.

Kumari and Gunathilake showed that the carotenoids content quantified as β-carotene and lycopene from fresh, dried and juiced black plum Syzygium caryophyllatum methanolic extracts decreased gradually during the digestion stages, which has been correlated with the decrease in antioxidant activity as total antioxidant activity and ABTS assay, among others tests Minerals are important elements for the human organism since they perform a variety of functions, such as growth, biochemical processes, promoting health, among others.

The absorption of minerals after digestion is completed by active and passive transport 6. In vitro methods for determining the bioaccessibility of minerals from plant sources have been used.

However, these have no power to predict the absorption pattern, which is extremely relevant in this case. To improve these methods, a better estimation by in vitro assessment has been achieved using a Caco-2 cell line grown on different supports, which can be applied to a variety of food sources , In general, the dialysability assay is a suitable method for determining mineral bioaccessibility.

In this method, originally developed for iron bioaccessibility, the measurement of soluble minerals as proportion of minerals that diffused through a semi-permeable membrane is done after in vitro simulated gastrointestinal digestion, with dialysis being used for adjusting the pH between the gastric and intestinal phases , Subsequently, improved bioaccessibility testing methods have been developed, one example being the BARGE method developed by The Bioaccessibility Research Group of Europe.

This method, previously used for the determination of metals in soils and certain foods, can also be successfully utilized for a large variety of metals from nutritional supplements e.

The protocol uses an initial saliva phase, followed by a simulation of gastric and intestinal compartments Among functional foods, an interesting category is represented by probiotics, foods containing lactic acid-producing bacteria such as Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium , which can provide health benefits In combination with different types of cheese, probiotics have been observed to enhance the bioaccessibility of minerals especially magnesium and calcium.

At the same time, the colonic microbiota significantly influences the bioaccessibility of zinc from plant matrices since it can reduce the dissolution of this mineral in the colon phase. Organic derivatives of certain minerals show higher bioactivity compared to the simple, inorganic form.

For example, selenomethionine shows a much higher bioaccessibility in the presence of probiotic bacteria e. Overall, mineral-enriched probiotics present good potential for the fortification of functional foods Moreover, functionalization of Se nanoparticles with plant material can rise the bioaccessibility and compatibility of this mineral Different strategies can be applied to enhance the bioaccessibility of minerals in foods, including their co-administration with plant material.

For example, Yun et al. have found that the bioaccessibility of calcium can be improved by adding a Moringa oleifera leaf hydrolysate to kimchi. As for functional foods, this type of approach could be used for mineral supplementation Moreover, another study concluded that iron and zinc bioaccessibility was enhanced in the case of pearl millet fortified with roselle calyces and baobab fruit pulp.

This could be explained by the presence of high levels of citric and ascorbic acid, which are organic compounds that promote the bioaccessibility of such minerals. The strategy of food-to-food fortification of cereal with other plant sources can serve as a method to improve the bioavailability of certain minerals Regarding the impact of nutraceutical formulation on the bioaccessibility of minerals, different factors influence this process.

In the case of iron, recent studies have shown that microcapsules could serve as a really good formulation, by limiting the interaction with food and by providing protection against oxidation Moreover, different iron salts, like ferric pyrophosphate and ferric ammonium citrate, show a high efficacy when they are encapsulated in liposomes Using the BARGE method, Tokalıoğlu et al.

assessed a variety of minerals from nutritional supplements and concluded that Mg, Mo, and Se have similar bioaccessibility in gastric and gastro-intestinal phases, Fe, Mn, and Zn are more bioaccessible from the gastric phase, and that there is a high variability for Cu and Cr bioaccessibility in both phases To conclude, Scrob et al.

showed that for several dried fruits, Na, K, Mg, Fe, Mn, and Cu present moderate bioaccessibility, but Zn is not bioaccessible after the simulation As components of nutraceuticals, vitamins are essential for both human and veterinary supplementation, because they influence the health, development and growth of the organism, even being required for reproduction , The beneficial effect of vitamins on the human organism is well established, and some notable examples are vitamin D improving bone resistance , vitamin A improving visual activity and vitamin C acting as a strong natural antioxidant.

Their essentiality in such processes dictates the need for an appropriate consumption of nutraceuticals and functional foods, which can help with supplementation One of the main challenges related to the bioaccessibility of vitamins is their low chemical stability.

For this reason, vitamin nutraceuticals might need special formulation techniques. Like carotenoids, hydrophobic vitamins such as vitamins D and E require lipid-based nanocarriers At the same time, the bioaccessibility of these vitamins is usually the rate-limiting step for their activity The bioaccessibility of lipid soluble phytocompounds can be changed by a good manipulation of formulation properties.

In the case of emulsion-based delivery systems, some factors that can influence the process are: the composition of oil and aqueous phases, the droplet size, aggregation and physical state, and the interfacial properties Another factor that influences the bioaccessibility of vitamins is the presence of minerals, and one of the most well-known examples is the interaction between calcium and vitamin D.

A possible mechanism that causes the reduction of lipophilic vitamin bioaccessibility is the perturbation of mixed micelles by precipitation specifically for divalent minerals and alteration of zeta potential, lowering their release , In the case of water-soluble vitamins, there can be a significant decrease in bioaccessibility for folate, vitamin C and B 1 , which is explained due to the difference in pH between the gastric and intestinal phases In foodstuffs of plant origin, the bioaccessibility of water-soluble vitamins is relatively low, explained by the presence of dietary fibers, but also by the characteristics of the GIT, such as the temperature and the pH.

This has been well established in the case of vitamins B 1 , B 2 and B 3 As for vitamin C or ascorbic acid , a neutral or alkaline pH induces the oxidation to dehydroascorbic acid, which is converted irreversibly to 2,3-diketogulonic acid 16 , , as displayed in Figure 4.

Brandon et al. investigated the maximum bioaccessibility of vitamins from various products, with interesting conclusions. In the case of dietary supplements and fortified food, folic acid and vitamin C showed a higher bioaccessibility than infant formulas, but for vitamin A, the feeding status, the composition and the encapsulation technique have a higher impact on the bioaccessibility Moreover, in infant foods rich in vitamin C, fortification with fruits and vegetables is important, but additional content of vitamin C in commercial products is needed due to the significant loss that can happen during processing and digestion.

This highlights the sensibility of vitamin C under temperature, light and pH variations and, for children, the bioaccessibility could be even lower, due to a higher gastric pH than adults For potential future vitamin C fortified foodstuffs, it is recommended that various factors are investigated, including the presence of flavanone, minerals and other vitamins in the final product Figure 4.

At alkaline pH, L-ascorbic acid vitamin C is reversibly oxidized to dehydroascorbic acid, which irreversibly hydrolyzes to 2,3-diketogulonic acid Another essential water-soluble vitamin is vitamin B 12 or cobalamin , an example of corrinoid which acts as a common ingredient in fortified foods and supplements.

The deficiency of this vitamin can be a cause of megaloblastic anemia and neuropathy, among other conditions 16 , In products of plant origin, vitamin B 12 should be absent, since its biosynthesis is limited to some bacteria and archaea species. Furthermore, foods that are fermented or contaminated with such microorganisms can be a source of vitamin B 12 Another source of vitamin B 12 is represented by cyanobacteria Considering the main presence of this vitamin in meat, culinary treatment should be considered in the assessment of bioaccessibility.

Recently, Afonso et al. A relevant method for the fortification of plant foods is represented by using microorganism produced vitamin B 12 , and in this case a heat treatment would be necessary to release the vitamin from the bacterial cells.

The bioaccessibility is different according to the nature of the food product Nevertheless, either from microorganisms bacteria, such as Propionibacterium freudenreichii and Lactobacillus brevis , and yeasts or synthetic origin, vitamin B 12 is a classic example of nutrient that can be used in food fortification of cereals, as a method to prevent deficiencies , As previously stated, nutraceuticals and supplements containing lipophilic vitamins should be carefully formulated to assure a maximal bioaccessibility.

However, this is rather difficult to apply since there are a lot of factors that can withhold their proper release from the matrix The quality and the nature of the oil phase have significant importance. Moreover, lipophilic vitamin bioaccessibility seems to be increasing as a result of reducing the oil droplet size in emulsions, probably because of a higher oil—water interfacial area For vitamin D 3 oil-in-water nanoemulsions, Tan et al.

found that the bioaccessibility is higher when using digestible oil corn oil , since vitamin molecules remain trapped inside the droplets if an indigestible oil phase mineral oil is used instead.

By using an oil mixture, the bioaccessibility of vitamin D 3 is intermediate between only digestible and indigestible oil For the same vitamin, Ozturk et al. found that nanoemulsions obtained with oils containing long chain triglycerides LCT show maximal bioaccessibility, which highlights the importance of oil composition in the formulation of nutraceuticals with lipophilic nutrients The same phenomenon has been observed for vitamin E for α-tocopherol acetate, in particular , for which long chain triglycerides emulsions increase the bioaccessibility more than medium chain triglycerides MCT.

The explanation arises from a higher efficacy of mixed micelles to solubilize the vitamin molecules and a higher ability to hydrolyze the acetate derivative to α-tocopherol Regarding the influence of the emulsifier type, Lv et al.

Nonetheless, future studies should include suitable designs, that can clarify the relationship between the in vivo functionality and bioaccessibility of lipophilic vitamins, assisted by intensive kinetic data Jensen et al. The differences might arise from the different food matrix nature and from the high variation in fat content, which is important for the formation of mixed micelles in which vitamin K can solubilize.

Newer methods for raising the bioaccessibility of lipophilic vitamins are under development, and the usage of Pickering emulsions seems to be gathering new interest in the development of fortified foods Bioaccessibility assessment can be performed through in vitro methods, in which the physiological conditions inside the GIT are simulated.

The main argument in favor of bioaccessibility testing is that it can act as an indicator of maintaining the bioactivity of phytochemicals after all the digestion stages, serving as a good alternative to the laborious and expensive in vivo testing. Nutraceuticals and functional foods are used as health-promoting products, and this trend indicates a special need for bioactivity evaluation after exposure to gastrointestinal conditions.

There is no universally accepted bioaccessibility determination method, and its assessment should be done considering various influential factors.

The variability in the properties of phytochemicals from different structural classes makes this process even more challenging.

For nutraceuticals and dietary supplements containing lipophilic compounds including carotenoids and fat-soluble vitamins , special formulation techniques should be considered to maximize their release from the matrix. Recent studies assessed the bioaccessibility in different nanodelivery and emulsion systems, and the most important enhancing factors seem to be oil phases containing long chain triglycerides and the use of digestible oils rather than indigestible ones.

In certain cases, encapsulation is a preferred dosage form, providing necessary protection against degradation. Regarding the link between the bioaccessibility assessment and the bioactivity of the reviewed classes of compounds, the research is still in an embryonic stage and the results seem contradictory.

In the case of polyphenols, the activity after simulated digestion depends strictly on the subtype of the compound, and there are significant differences between simple non-flavonoids, flavonoids, and anthocyanins.

The findings of the present review highlight the importance of assessing the bioaccessibility of new functional foods and nutraceuticals, which acts as a powerful, simple, and cheap method for predicting the potential in vivo bioactivity and bioavailability of natural compounds.

The impact of such research comes from the fact that bioaccessibility depends on several different factors, and they can be determined only employing a thorough assessment of formulation and extraction techniques, solvents, degradation or activation mechanisms and the nature of the matrix.

In spite of all these, the research that is available at the moment fails to successfully determine a correlation between bioaccessibility testing and bioactivity determinations, which highlights the need for improved experimental protocols with standardized methodology.

Most of the studies regarding nutraceuticals and functional foods concluded that bioaccessibility is subjected to high variability, with a necessity of further determinations to explain the mechanisms that are involved in the release, degradation and solubilization of bioactive compounds.

For this reason, we consider this review as being one of the first ones to criticize the present methodology, highlighting the need for protocols with higher correlation capacity. In this regard, the development of future studies should undoubtedly take into consideration the following questions:.

What is the most accurate way to assess the bioaccessibility of compounds in the different simulation phases, considering the quantitative analysis? What is the real influence of the simulated digestion on the assessed bioactivity and how do the conditions of every digestion stage influence the results of the assays?

What is the most useful method to express bioaccessibility in relation to other assays thar are applied in the field of nutrition research? How many of the simulated digestion phases are necessary for researching the bioaccessibility of mixed compounds from dosage forms?

Nevertheless, what should be changed in the case of fortified foods? What is the applicability of the current methodology in the effort to determine useful correlations between in vitro and in vivo behavior of complex chemical matrices?

One of the main challenges of comparing the high number of scientific information available is the lack of an equivalent method for bioaccessibility expression. As other authors have recently suggested 13 , 38 , — , in spite of the advances in food science and human nutrition research, further development of methodology is promptly required.

Nutraceuticals and functional foods are used as health-promoting products, and this trend indicates a need for bioactivity evaluation after exposure to gastrointestinal conditions.

Several factors influencing the bioaccessibility of bioactive compounds phenolic derivatives, carotenoids, minerals, and vitamins in the case of nutraceuticals and functional foods have been discussed.

Furthermore, the link between bioaccessibility and bioactivity has been evaluated with difficulty due to the absence of an adequate standardized methodology.

Since there is a lack of such information with utmost importance in the field of human nutrition research, the remarks of the present review highlight the imperative need for re-evaluating and standardizing the experimental setups and the quantitative determinations that are currently in use.

AN: conceptualization, methodology, software, and writing—review and editing. MB: writing—review and editing. LB: visualization, writing—review and editing, and funding acquisition. GR: supervision and writing—review and editing.

LL: software, methodology, and supervision. CT: supervision and funding acquisition. AM: conceptualization, methodology, and funding acquisition.

CB: methodology and supervision. GC: supervision. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. This work was supported by a grant of the Romanian Ministry of Education and Research, CNCS—UEFISCDI, project number PN-III-P The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Liu, Y, Zhang, D, Wu, Y, Wang, D, Wei, Y, Wu, J, et al. Stability and absorption of anthocyanins from blueberries subjected to a simulated digestion process. Int J Food Sci Nutr. Gonçalves, J, Ramos, R, Luís, Â, Rocha, S, Rosado, T, Gallardo, E, et al.

Assessment of the bioaccessibility and bioavailability of the phenolic compounds of Prunus avium L. by in vitro digestion and cell model. Pollini, L, Juan-García, A, Blasi, F, Mañes, J, Cossignani, L, and Juan, C. Assessing bioaccessibility and bioavailability in vitro of phenolic compounds from freeze-dried apple pomace by LC-Q-TOF-MS.

Food Biosci. Rocchetti, G, Giuberti, G, Lucchini, F, and Lucini, L. Polyphenols and sesquiterpene lactones from artichoke heads: modulation of starch digestion, gut bioaccessibility, and bioavailability following in vitro digestion and large intestine fermentation.

Lingua, MS, Theumer, MG, Kruzynski, P, Wunderlin, DA, and Baroni, MV. Bioaccessibility of polyphenols and antioxidant properties of the white grape by simulated digestion and Caco-2 cell assays: comparative study with its winemaking product.

Kasapoğlu, KN, Kruger, J, Barla-Demirkoz, A, Gültekin-Özgüven, M, Frank, J, and Özçelik, B. Hu, YY, Ma, CG, Zhou, TL, Bai, G, Guo, SJ, and Chen, XW. Angelino, D, Cossu, M, Marti, A, Zanoletti, M, Chiavaroli, L, Brighenti, F, et al. Bioaccessibility and bioavailability of phenolic compounds in bread: a review.

Santana, MG, Freitas-Silva, O, Mariutti, LRB, and Teodoro, AJ. A review of in vitro methods to evaluate the bioaccessibility of phenolic compounds in tropical fruits. Tagliazucchi, D, Verzelloni, E, Bertolini, D, and Conte, A. In vitro bio-accessibility and antioxidant activity of grape polyphenols.

Zhang, H, Hassan, YI, Renaud, J, Liu, R, Yang, C, Sun, Y, et al. Bioaccessibility, bioavailability, and anti-inflammatory effects of anthocyanins from purple root vegetables using mono- and co-culture cell models.

Mol Nutr Food Res. Bertolino, M, Barbosa-Pereira, L, Ghirardello, D, Botta, C, Rolle, L, Guglielmetti, A, et al. Coffee silverskin as nutraceutical ingredient in yogurt: its effect on functional properties and its bioaccessibility.

Pereira-Caro, G, Ordóñez-Díaz, JL, de Santiago, E, Moreno-Ortega, A, Cáceres-Jiménez, S, Sánchez-Parra, M, et al. Antioxidant activity and bio-accessibility of polyphenols in black carrot Daucus carota L.

sativus var. atrorubens Alef. and two derived products during simulated gastrointestinal digestion and colonic fermentation. Pellegrini, M, Lucas-Gonzalez, R, Sayas-Barberá, E, Fernández-López, J, Pérez-Álvarez, JA, and Viuda-Martos, M. Bioaccessibility of phenolic compounds and antioxidant capacity of chia Salvia hispanica L.

Plant Foods Hum Nutr. Chen, GL, Chen, SG, Zhao, YY, Luo, CX, Li, J, and Gao, YQ. Total phenolic contents of 33 fruits and their antioxidant capacities before and after in vitro digestion. Ind Crop Prod. Balakrishnan, G, and Schneider, RG.

Quinoa flavonoids and their bioaccessibility during in vitro gastrointestinal digestion. J Cereal Sci. Peanparkdee, M, Borompichaichartkul, C, and Iwamoto, S. Bioaccessibility and antioxidant activity of phenolic acids, flavonoids, and anthocyanins of encapsulated Thai rice bran extracts during in vitro gastrointestinal digestion.

Gaziano JM, Hennekens CH. The role of beta-carotene in the prevention of cardiovascular disease. Ann NY Acad Sci. Gibson GR, Roberfroid MB.

Dietary modulation of the human colonic microbiota: Introducing the concept of prebiotics. Giovannucci E. Tomatoes, tomato-based products, lycopene, and cancer: Review of the epidemiologic literature. J Natl Cancer Inst. Giovannucci E, Rimm EB, Liu Y, Stampfer MJ, Willet WC.

A prospective study of tomato products, lycopene, and prostate cancer risk. Girard B, Mazza G. Functional grape and citrus products. Glore SR, van Treeck D, Knehan AW, Guild M. Soluble fiber and serum lipids: a literature review. J Am Diet Assoc. Gorham J. Stilbenes and phenanthrenes.

Methods in plant biochemistry, vol. New York: Academic Press; Gould MN. Cancer chemoprevention and therapy by monoterpenes.

Environ Hlth Perspec. Granado F, Olmedilla B, Blanco I. Nutricional and clinical relevance of lutein in human health. Br J Nutr. Green MS, Harari G. Association of serum lipoproteins and health-related habits with coffee and tea consumption in free-living subjects examined in the Israeli CORDIS study.

Prev Med. Hadley CW, Miller EC, Schwartz, SJ, Clinton SK. Tomatoes, lycopene, and prostate cancer: Progress and promise. Exp Biol Med. Haller Jr ES, Miller DT, Yannuzzi LA, Willet W. Dietary carotenoids, vitamins A, C, and E, and advanced age-related macular degeneration. J Am Med Assoc.

Handelman GJ, Dratz EA, Reay CC, van Kujik FJGM. Carotenoids in the human macula and whole retina. Invest Ophthalmol Visual Sci. Hasler CM. Functional foods: Their role in disease prevention and health promotion.

Heaney RK, Fenwick GR. Natural toxins and protective factors in Brassica species, including rapeseed. Nat Toxins. Hecht SS. Chemoprevention of cancer by isothiocyanates, modifiers of carcinogen metabolism.

Hertog MGL, Feskens EJM, Hollman PCH, Katan MB, Kromhout D. Dietary antioxidant flavonoids and risk of coronary heart disease: The Zutphen Elderly Study. Hicks KB, Moreau RA. Phytosterols and phytostanols: Functional food cholesterol busters. Hodgson JM, Puddey IB, Beilin LJ, Mori TA, Croft KD.

Supplementation with isoflavonoid phytoestrogens does not alter serum lipid concentrations: A randomized controlled trial in humans. Hollman PCH, Arts ICW.

Flavonols, flavones and flavanols — nature, occurrence and dietary burden. Hollman PCH, Venema DP. The content of the potentially anticarcinogenic ellagic acid in plant foods. In: Waldron KW, Johnson IT, Fenwick GR editors.

Food and cancer prevention: Chemical and biological aspects. Cambridge, England: The Royal Society of Chemistry; Howell AB, Versa N, der Marderosian A, Foo LY. Inhibition of the adherence of P-fimbriated Escherichia coli to uroepithelial-cell surfaces by proanthocyanindin extracts from cranberries.

New Eng J Med. Huang M-T, Ferraro T, Ho C-T. Cancer chemoprevention by phytochemicals in fruits and vegetables: An overview. In: Huang M-T, Osawa T, Ho C-T, Rosen RT editors. Food phytochemicals for cancer prevention I.

Fruits and vegetables. Washington DC: American Chemical Society; Inks S, Mathews R. Oatmeal and oat-bran: Heart healthy benefits and more. In: Yalpani M editor. New Technologies for healthy foods and nutraceuticals. Shrewsburry, Massachusetts: ATL Press; Isaachson JL, Moser M, Stein EA, Dudley K, Davey JA, Liskov E, Black HR.

Garlic powder and plasma lipids and lipoproteins: A multicenter, randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Jang M, Cai L, Udeani GO, Slowing KV, Thomas CF, Beecher CWW, Fong HHS, Farnsworth NR, Kinghorn AD, Mehta RG, Moon RC, Pezzuto JM.

Cancer chemopreventive activity of resveratrol, a natural product derived from grapes. Jones PJ, Raeini-Sarjaz M. Plant sterols and derivatives: The current spread of results. Kaur C, Kapoor HC. Int J Food Sci Technol.

Kohlmeier L, Hastings SB. Epidemiologic evidence of a role of carotenoids in cardiovascular disease prevention. Kohlmeier L, Kark JD, Gomez-Garcia E, Martin BC, Steck SE, Kardinaal AFM, Ringstad J, Thamm M, Masaev V, Riemersma R, Martin-Moreno JM, Huttunen JK, Kok FJ.

Lycopene and myocardial infarction risk in the EURAMIC Study. Am J Epidemiol. Kohlmeier L, Weterings KGC, Steck S, Kok FJ. Tea and cancer prevention: An evaluation of the epidemiologic literature.

Komiyama K, Hayashi M, Cha S, Yamaoka M. Antitumor and antioxidant activity of tocotrienols. In: Ong ASH, Packer L editors. Lipid-soluble antioxidants: Biochemistry and clinical applications. Basel, Switzerland: Birkhauser Verlag; Kono S, Shinchi K, Ikeda N, Yanai F, Imanishi K.

Green tea consumption and serum lipid profiles: A cross-sectional study in Northern Kyushu, Japan. Krinsky NI, Johnson EJ.

Carotenoid actions and their relation to health and disease. Mol Aspects Med. Kris-Etherton PM, Hecker KD, Bonanome A, Coval SM, Binkoski AE, Hilpert KF, Griel AE, Etherton TD. Bioactive compounds in foods: Their role in the prevention of cardiovascular disease and cancer.

Am J Med. Kuroda Y, Hara Y. Antimutagenic and anticarcinogenic activity of tea polyphenols. Mutation Res. Laplaud PM, Lelubre A, Chapman MJ. Antioxidant action of Vaccinium myrtillus extract on human low density lipoproteins in vitro: Initial observations.

Fundam Clin Pharmacol. Law MR, Morris JK. By how much does fruit and vegetable consumption reduce the risk of ischaemic heart disease? Eur J Clin Nutr. Lia A, Andersson H, Mekki N, Juhel C, Senft M, Lairon D. Postprandial lipemia in relation to sterol and fat excretion in ileostomy subjects given oat-bran and wheat with meals.

Lin X-Y, Lin JZ, Milner JA. Dietary garlic suppresses DNA adducts caused by N-nitroso compounds. Mayne ST. Beta-carotene, carotenoids, and disease prevention in humans. FASEB J.

Mei X, Wang MC, Xu HX, Pan P, Gao CY, Han N, Fu MY. Garlic and gastric cancer - the effect of garlic on nitrite and nitrate in gastric juice. Acta Nutr Sinica. Mei X, Lin X, Liu J, Song P, Hu J, Liong X.

The blocking effect of garlic on the formation of N-nitrosoproline in humans. Acta Nutrimenta Sinica. Messina M, Barnes S. The role of soy products in reducing risk of cancer. Michnovicz JJ, Bradlow HL.

Altered estrogen metabolism and excretion in humans following consumption of indole carbinol. Miettinen TA. Phytosterols — what plant breeders should focus on.

Mithen RF, Dekker M, Verkerk R, Rabot S, Johnson IT. The nutritional significance, biosynthesis and bioavailability of glucosinolates in human foods. Moeller SM, Jacques PF, Blumberg JB. The potential role of dietary xanthophylls in cataract and age-related macular degeneration.

J Am Coll Nutr. Morazzoni P, Magistretti MJ. Activity of myrtocyan, anthocyanoside complex from Vaccinium myrtillus VMA , on platelet aggregation and adhesiveness.

Moreau RA, Powell MJ, Hicks KB. Extraction and quantitative analysis of oil from commercial corn fiber. Nagata C, Takatsuka N, Kurisu Y, Shimizu H. Decreased serum total cholesterol is associated with high intake of soy products in Japanese men and women.

Namiki M. Antimutagen and anticarcinogen research in Japan. Ness AR, Powles JW. Fruit and vegetables, and cardiovascular disease: A review.

Int J Epidemiol. Nestle PJ, Yamahita T, Sasahara T, Pomeroy S, Dart A, Komesaroff P, Owen A, Abbey M. Soy isoflavones improve systemic arterial compliance but not plasma lipids in menopausal and premenopausal women. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. Ofek I, Goldhar J, Sharon N. Anti-Escherichia coli adhesion activity of cranberry and blueberry juices.

In: Kahane S, Ofek I editors. Toward anti-adhesion therapy for microbial diseases. New York: Plenum Press; Oguni I, Chen SJ, Lin PZ, Hara Y.

Protection against cancer risk by Japanese green tea. Omenn GS, Goodman GE, Thornquist MD, Balmes J, Cullen MR, Glass A, Keogh JP, Meysken FL Jr, Valanis B, William JH Jr, Barnhart S, Hammer S. Effects of a combination of beta-carotene and vitamin A on lung cancer and cardiovascular disease.

New Engl. Oomah BD, Mazza G. Health benefits of phytochemicals from selected Canadians crops. Palace VP, Khaper N, Qin Q, Singal PK. Antioxidant potentials of vitamin A and carotenoids and their relevance to heart disease.

Free Radic Biol Med. Palozza P, Krinsky NI. Antioxidant effects of carotenoids in vivo and in vitro: An overview. Meth Enzymol. Parker RA, Pearce BC, Clark RW, Gordon DA, Wright JJK. Tocotrienols regulate cholesterol production in mammalian cells by post-transcriptional suppression of 3-hydroxymethylglutaryl-coenzyme A reductase.

J Biol Chem. Parr AJ, Bolwell GP. Phenols in the plant and in man. The potential of possible nutritional enhancement of the diet by modifying the phenol content or profile. Petesch BL, Sumiyoshi H. Recent advances on the nutritional benefits accompanying the use of garlic as a supplement.

Piironen GW, Price KR, Rhodes MJC, Willianson G. Tocopherols and tocotrienols in Finnish foods: Vegetables, fruits and berries. Piironen V, Lindsay DG, Miettinen TA, Toivo J, Lampi A-M. Plant sterols: Biosynthesis, biological function and their importance to human health.

Potter SM. Soy protein and cardiovascular disease: The impact of bioactive components in soy. Price KR, Fenwick GR. Naturally occurring oestrogens in foods- a review. Food Addit Contam. Prior RL, Cao G. Antioxidant phytochemicals in fruits and vegetables: Diet and health implications.

Hort Sci. Qureshi AA, Pearce BC, Nor RM, Gapor A, Peterson DM, Elson CE. α-Tocopherol attenuates the impact of tocotrienol on hepatic 3-hydroxymethylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase activity. Rao AV, Agarwal S. Role of lycopene as antioxidant carotenoid in the prevention of chronic diseases: a review.

Nutr Res. Rahman K, Lowe GM. Garlic and cardiovascular disease: A critical review. Renaud S, de Lorgeril M. Wine, alcohol, platelets, and the French paradox for coronary heart disease.

The Lancet. Rice-Evans CA, Miller NJ, Paganga G. Structure—antioxidant activity relationship of flavonoids and phenolic acids.

Ripple GH, Gould MN, Stewart JA, Tutsch, KD, Arzoomanian RZ, Alberti D, Feierabend C, Pomplun M, Wilding G, Bailey HH. Phase I clinical trial of perillyl alcohol administered daily.

Clin Cancer Res. Ripsin CM, Keenan JM, Jacobs DR, Elmer PJ, Welch RR. Oat products and lipid lowering. Rissanen T, Voutilainen S, Nyyssönen K, Salonen JT.

Lycopene, atherosclerosis and coronary heart disease. Roberfroid MB. Functional effects of food components and the gastrointestinal system: Chicory fructooligosaccharides.

Bioavailability of β-carotene is lower in raw than in processed carrots and spinach in women. Rodriguez-Amaya DB. Nature and distribution of carotenoids in foods. In: Charalambous G editor.

Shelf-life studies of foods and beverages. Chemical, biological, physical and nutritional aspects. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science Publishers; Latin American food sources of carotenoids. Arch Latinoamer Nutr. Rotondo S, de Gaetano G. Protection from cardiovascular disease by wine and its derived products.

Epidemiological evidence and biological mechanisms. World Rev Nutr Diet. Schneeman BO. Linking agricultural production and human nutrition. Seddon JM, Ajani UA, Sperduto RD, Hiller R, Blair N, Burton TC, Ferber MD, Gragoudas ES, Haller J, Miller DT, Yannuzzi LA, Willet W.

Serbinova EA, Tsuchiya M, Goth S, Kagan VE, Packer L. Antioxidant action of α-tocopherol and α-tocotrienol in membranes. In: Packer L, Fuchs J editors. Vitamin E in health and disease. New York: Marcel Dekker; Sies H, Stahl W. Lycopene: Antioxidant and biological effects and its bioavailability in the human.

Silagy C, Neil A. Garlic as a lipid-lowering agent — a meta-analysis. J Royal Coll Physicians Lond. Sivam GP, Lampe JW, Ulness B, Swanzy SR, Potter JD. Helicobacter pylori — in vitro susceptibility to garlic Allium sativum extract.

Stacewicz-Sapuntzakis M, Bowen PE. Role of lycopene and tomato products in prostate health. Biochim Biophy Acta. Stahl W, Ale-Agha N, Polidori MC. Non-antioxidant properties of carotenoids. Biol Chem. Stahl W, Sies H.

Bioactivity and protective effects of natural carotenoids. Biochim Biophys Acta. Steinmetz KA, Kushi H, Bostick RM, Folsom AR, Potter JD.

Steinmetz KA, Potter JD. Vegetables, fruit, and cancer prevention: A review.

Open access peer-reviewed Edited Volume. Phytochemicals in functional foods College Phytochemical, Faisalabad vunctional, Pakistan. The phytochemicals present Dehydration causes functional foods fpods a vital role in boosting immunity Phytochemicals in functional foods promoting health. Toods book funcgional a comprehensive overview of the importance of functional foods and antioxidants and their scavenging activity for preventing various health-related disorders. This book also covers the therapeutic and medicinal potential of various bioactive compounds for a healthy lifesty This book also covers the therapeutic and medicinal potential of various bioactive compounds for a healthy lifestyle, as well as examines different products containing functional ingredients that demonstrate health-promoting potential. By submitting the form you agree to IntechOpen using your personal information in order to fulfil your library recommendation. Sign Concentration and problem-solving. Forgot your password? Home » Review on Discovery Funtcional Development Phytoche,icals Novel Phytochemicals Which can be Used in Functional Foods. Review on Discovery and Development of Novel Phytochemicals Which can be Used in Functional Foods. Article Publishing History.

Phytochemicals in functional foods -

Dietary modulation of the human colonic microbiota: Introducing the concept of prebiotics. Giovannucci E. Tomatoes, tomato-based products, lycopene, and cancer: Review of the epidemiologic literature. J Natl Cancer Inst.

Giovannucci E, Rimm EB, Liu Y, Stampfer MJ, Willet WC. A prospective study of tomato products, lycopene, and prostate cancer risk. Girard B, Mazza G. Functional grape and citrus products. Glore SR, van Treeck D, Knehan AW, Guild M. Soluble fiber and serum lipids: a literature review.

J Am Diet Assoc. Gorham J. Stilbenes and phenanthrenes. Methods in plant biochemistry, vol. New York: Academic Press; Gould MN. Cancer chemoprevention and therapy by monoterpenes. Environ Hlth Perspec. Granado F, Olmedilla B, Blanco I.

Nutricional and clinical relevance of lutein in human health. Br J Nutr. Green MS, Harari G. Association of serum lipoproteins and health-related habits with coffee and tea consumption in free-living subjects examined in the Israeli CORDIS study. Prev Med. Hadley CW, Miller EC, Schwartz, SJ, Clinton SK.

Tomatoes, lycopene, and prostate cancer: Progress and promise. Exp Biol Med. Haller Jr ES, Miller DT, Yannuzzi LA, Willet W. Dietary carotenoids, vitamins A, C, and E, and advanced age-related macular degeneration.

J Am Med Assoc. Handelman GJ, Dratz EA, Reay CC, van Kujik FJGM. Carotenoids in the human macula and whole retina. Invest Ophthalmol Visual Sci. Hasler CM. Functional foods: Their role in disease prevention and health promotion.

Heaney RK, Fenwick GR. Natural toxins and protective factors in Brassica species, including rapeseed. Nat Toxins. Hecht SS.

Chemoprevention of cancer by isothiocyanates, modifiers of carcinogen metabolism. Hertog MGL, Feskens EJM, Hollman PCH, Katan MB, Kromhout D. Dietary antioxidant flavonoids and risk of coronary heart disease: The Zutphen Elderly Study. Hicks KB, Moreau RA.

Phytosterols and phytostanols: Functional food cholesterol busters. Hodgson JM, Puddey IB, Beilin LJ, Mori TA, Croft KD. Supplementation with isoflavonoid phytoestrogens does not alter serum lipid concentrations: A randomized controlled trial in humans.

Hollman PCH, Arts ICW. Flavonols, flavones and flavanols — nature, occurrence and dietary burden. Hollman PCH, Venema DP. The content of the potentially anticarcinogenic ellagic acid in plant foods. In: Waldron KW, Johnson IT, Fenwick GR editors. Food and cancer prevention: Chemical and biological aspects.

Cambridge, England: The Royal Society of Chemistry; Howell AB, Versa N, der Marderosian A, Foo LY. Inhibition of the adherence of P-fimbriated Escherichia coli to uroepithelial-cell surfaces by proanthocyanindin extracts from cranberries.

New Eng J Med. Huang M-T, Ferraro T, Ho C-T. Cancer chemoprevention by phytochemicals in fruits and vegetables: An overview. In: Huang M-T, Osawa T, Ho C-T, Rosen RT editors.

Food phytochemicals for cancer prevention I. Fruits and vegetables. Washington DC: American Chemical Society; Inks S, Mathews R. Oatmeal and oat-bran: Heart healthy benefits and more. In: Yalpani M editor.

New Technologies for healthy foods and nutraceuticals. Shrewsburry, Massachusetts: ATL Press; Isaachson JL, Moser M, Stein EA, Dudley K, Davey JA, Liskov E, Black HR. Garlic powder and plasma lipids and lipoproteins: A multicenter, randomized, placebo-controlled trial.

Jang M, Cai L, Udeani GO, Slowing KV, Thomas CF, Beecher CWW, Fong HHS, Farnsworth NR, Kinghorn AD, Mehta RG, Moon RC, Pezzuto JM. Cancer chemopreventive activity of resveratrol, a natural product derived from grapes.

Jones PJ, Raeini-Sarjaz M. Plant sterols and derivatives: The current spread of results. Kaur C, Kapoor HC. Int J Food Sci Technol. Kohlmeier L, Hastings SB. Epidemiologic evidence of a role of carotenoids in cardiovascular disease prevention.

Kohlmeier L, Kark JD, Gomez-Garcia E, Martin BC, Steck SE, Kardinaal AFM, Ringstad J, Thamm M, Masaev V, Riemersma R, Martin-Moreno JM, Huttunen JK, Kok FJ. Lycopene and myocardial infarction risk in the EURAMIC Study. Am J Epidemiol. Kohlmeier L, Weterings KGC, Steck S, Kok FJ.

Tea and cancer prevention: An evaluation of the epidemiologic literature. Komiyama K, Hayashi M, Cha S, Yamaoka M. Antitumor and antioxidant activity of tocotrienols. In: Ong ASH, Packer L editors. Lipid-soluble antioxidants: Biochemistry and clinical applications. Basel, Switzerland: Birkhauser Verlag; Kono S, Shinchi K, Ikeda N, Yanai F, Imanishi K.

Green tea consumption and serum lipid profiles: A cross-sectional study in Northern Kyushu, Japan. Krinsky NI, Johnson EJ.

Carotenoid actions and their relation to health and disease. Mol Aspects Med. Kris-Etherton PM, Hecker KD, Bonanome A, Coval SM, Binkoski AE, Hilpert KF, Griel AE, Etherton TD. Bioactive compounds in foods: Their role in the prevention of cardiovascular disease and cancer.

Am J Med. Kuroda Y, Hara Y. Antimutagenic and anticarcinogenic activity of tea polyphenols. Mutation Res. Laplaud PM, Lelubre A, Chapman MJ. Antioxidant action of Vaccinium myrtillus extract on human low density lipoproteins in vitro: Initial observations. Fundam Clin Pharmacol.

Law MR, Morris JK. By how much does fruit and vegetable consumption reduce the risk of ischaemic heart disease? Eur J Clin Nutr. Lia A, Andersson H, Mekki N, Juhel C, Senft M, Lairon D. Postprandial lipemia in relation to sterol and fat excretion in ileostomy subjects given oat-bran and wheat with meals.

Lin X-Y, Lin JZ, Milner JA. Dietary garlic suppresses DNA adducts caused by N-nitroso compounds. Mayne ST. Beta-carotene, carotenoids, and disease prevention in humans. FASEB J. Mei X, Wang MC, Xu HX, Pan P, Gao CY, Han N, Fu MY. Garlic and gastric cancer - the effect of garlic on nitrite and nitrate in gastric juice.

Acta Nutr Sinica. Mei X, Lin X, Liu J, Song P, Hu J, Liong X. The blocking effect of garlic on the formation of N-nitrosoproline in humans. Acta Nutrimenta Sinica. Messina M, Barnes S. The role of soy products in reducing risk of cancer.

Michnovicz JJ, Bradlow HL. Altered estrogen metabolism and excretion in humans following consumption of indole carbinol. Miettinen TA. Phytosterols — what plant breeders should focus on. Mithen RF, Dekker M, Verkerk R, Rabot S, Johnson IT. The nutritional significance, biosynthesis and bioavailability of glucosinolates in human foods.

Moeller SM, Jacques PF, Blumberg JB. The potential role of dietary xanthophylls in cataract and age-related macular degeneration. J Am Coll Nutr. Morazzoni P, Magistretti MJ.

Activity of myrtocyan, anthocyanoside complex from Vaccinium myrtillus VMA , on platelet aggregation and adhesiveness.

Moreau RA, Powell MJ, Hicks KB. Extraction and quantitative analysis of oil from commercial corn fiber. Nagata C, Takatsuka N, Kurisu Y, Shimizu H. Decreased serum total cholesterol is associated with high intake of soy products in Japanese men and women.

Namiki M. Antimutagen and anticarcinogen research in Japan. Ness AR, Powles JW. Fruit and vegetables, and cardiovascular disease: A review. Int J Epidemiol. Nestle PJ, Yamahita T, Sasahara T, Pomeroy S, Dart A, Komesaroff P, Owen A, Abbey M. Soy isoflavones improve systemic arterial compliance but not plasma lipids in menopausal and premenopausal women.

Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. Ofek I, Goldhar J, Sharon N. Anti-Escherichia coli adhesion activity of cranberry and blueberry juices.

In: Kahane S, Ofek I editors. Toward anti-adhesion therapy for microbial diseases. New York: Plenum Press; Oguni I, Chen SJ, Lin PZ, Hara Y. Protection against cancer risk by Japanese green tea. Omenn GS, Goodman GE, Thornquist MD, Balmes J, Cullen MR, Glass A, Keogh JP, Meysken FL Jr, Valanis B, William JH Jr, Barnhart S, Hammer S.

Effects of a combination of beta-carotene and vitamin A on lung cancer and cardiovascular disease. New Engl. Oomah BD, Mazza G. Health benefits of phytochemicals from selected Canadians crops. Palace VP, Khaper N, Qin Q, Singal PK. Antioxidant potentials of vitamin A and carotenoids and their relevance to heart disease.

Free Radic Biol Med. Palozza P, Krinsky NI. Antioxidant effects of carotenoids in vivo and in vitro: An overview. Meth Enzymol. Parker RA, Pearce BC, Clark RW, Gordon DA, Wright JJK. Tocotrienols regulate cholesterol production in mammalian cells by post-transcriptional suppression of 3-hydroxymethylglutaryl-coenzyme A reductase.

J Biol Chem. Linus Pauling Institute: Phytochemicals Zoochemicals Zoochemicals are the animal equivalent of phytochemicals in plants. They are compounds in animals that are believed to provide health benefits beyond the traditional nutrients that food contains.

Hopefully the name is pretty easy to remember because you can find animals at a zoo. Some compounds can be both phytochemicals and zoochemicals. An example of compounds that can be classified as both are the yellow carotenoids lutein and zeaxanthin.

Kale, spinach, and corn contain phytochemicals and are good sources of lutein and zeaxanthin. Whereas egg yolks contain zoochemicals and are also a good source of these carotenoids.

There are a number of definitions of functional foods. Functional foods and nutraceuticals. New York: Springer-Verlag Google Scholar. Thakur, N, Raigond, P, Singh, Y, Mishra, T, Singh, B, Lal, MK, et al. Recent updates on bioaccessibility of phytonutrients.

Trends Food Sci Technol. Dima, C, Assadpour, E, Dima, S, and Jafari, SM. Bioavailability and bioaccessibility of food bioactive compounds; overview and assessment by in vitro methods. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf.

Fernández-García, E, Carvajal-Lérida, I, and Pérez-Gálvez, A. In vitro bioaccessibility assessment as a prediction tool of nutritional efficiency. Nutr Res.

Salvia-Trujillo, L, and McClements, DJ. Improvement of β-carotene bioaccessibility from dietary supplements using excipient nanoemulsions. J Agric Food Chem. Martin, YC. A bioavailability score. J Med Chem. Carbonell-Capella, JM, Buniowska, M, Barba, FJ, Esteve, MJ, and Frígola, A. Analytical methods for determining bioavailability and bioaccessibility of bioactive compounds from fruits and vegetables: a review.

PubMed Abstract CrossRef Full Text Google Scholar. Chacón-Ordóñez, T, Carle, R, and Schweiggert, R. Bioaccessibility of carotenoids from plant and animal foods. J Sci Food Agric. Rasera, GB, de Camargo, AC, and de Castro, RJS. Bioaccessibility of phenolic compounds using the standardized INFOGEST protocol: a narrative review.

Shahidi, F, and Peng, H. Bioaccessibility and bioavailability of phenolic compounds. J Food Bioact. Xavier, AAO, and Mercadante, AZ.

The bioaccessibility of carotenoids impacts the design of functional foods. Curr Opin Food Sci. Yaman, M, Çatak, J, Uğur, H, Gürbüz, M, Belli, İ, Tanyıldız, SN, et al. The bioaccessibility of water-soluble vitamins: a review. Tan, Y, Zhou, H, Zhang, Z, and McClements, DJ.

Bioaccessibility of oil-soluble vitamins a, D, E in plant-based emulsions: impact of oil droplet size. Food Funct. Udenigwe, CC, Abioye, RO, Okagu, IU, and Obeme-Nmom, JI.

Bioaccessibility of bioactive peptides: recent advances and perspectives. Álvarez-Olguín, MA, Beltrán-Barrientos, LM, Hernandez-Mendoza, A, González-Córdova, AF, and Vallejo-Cordoba, B. Current trends and perspectives on bioaccessibility and bioavailability of food bioactive peptides: in vitro and ex vivo studies.

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Nutraceuticals Phytochemicals in functional foods Hydration products foods Phytcohemicals composed Proven weight loss especially fooxs matrices, Phytochemicals in functional foods Phytocehmicals, carotenoids, minerals, and vitamins, among functjonal, being the main classes Phytohemicals Phytochemicals in functional foods involved in their bioactivities. Despite their wide use, further investigations are needed to certify Phytochfmicals proper release of these phytochemicals into the Phytochfmicals medium, fnctional the folds assay is Phytochemicals in functional foods of the most frequently used method. The aim foovs this review was to gather and describe different methods that can be used to assess the bioaccessibility of nutraceuticals and functional foods, along with the most important factors that can impact this process. The link between simulated digestion testing of phytochemicals and their in vitro bioactivity is also discussed, with a special focus on the potential of developing nutraceuticals and functional foods from simple plant materials. The bioactive potential of certain classes of phytochemicals from nutraceuticals and functional foods is susceptible to different variations during the bioaccessibility assessment, with different factors contributing to this variability, namely the chemical composition and the nature of the matrix. Regardless of the high number of studies, the current methodology fails to assume correlations between bioaccessibility and bioactivity, and the findings of this review indicate a necessity for updated and standardized protocols.