Mindful eating and self-compassion -
The second moderation model analysis used ONI as the independent variable, EDQOL as a dependent variable, and FFMQ and components of FFMQ as potential moderators. The rest of the moderators were non-significant. The results are presented in Table 5. Furthermore, the third moderation model analysis used ONI as the independent variable, EDQOL as a dependent variable, and the four components of MEBS as potential moderators.
The results indicated that none of the MEBS components were significant moderators in the relationship between ONI and EDQOL. The results are presented in Table 6.
The primary aim of the current study was to explore the associations between ON, mindfulness, mindful eating, self-compassion and eating disorder QoL, as well as the potential moderation of self-compassion, mindfulness, and mindful eating. Previous research into orthorexia and mindfulness has stated that there was a negative correlation between the two constructs [ 84 ].
The findings in the present study have confirmed the same relationship between orthorexia and mindfulness, and are in line with eating behaviours research and mindfulness, as mindfulness is associated with healthier eating [ 8 , 29 , 52 , 53 , 54 , 56 , 57 , 58 , 59 ] and protective values against the development of disordered eating [ 67 ].
Two of the subscales were related negatively to orthorexia, non-judgement and acting with awareness. Research showed that individuals with orthorexic behaviours display high levels of distress, self-judgement, and self-punishment when dietary violations occur [ 11 , 48 ].
However, individuals with high orthorexic tendencies displayed low levels of acting with awareness. Such a relationship with acting with awareness goes against findings in the orthorexia literature, as research suggested that such individuals engage in obsessions with nutrition, where their entire focus is on the preparation of food and ensuring the quality of food before consumption [ 48 ], which may or may not be a different description of being aware that needs further exploration.
Findings may be relevant to recent literature dictating a separation of decision-making around food from mindful eating behaviours [ 50 ], and food preparation would certainly not relate to decision-making in the present moment as described in both mindfulness and mindful eating.
Self-compassion and mindful eating have also been investigated in the present study. A previous study by Kalika et al. The finding in the present study regarding self-compassion has been in accordance with past research [ 43 ]. However, mindful eating has also been significant in the present study, which contradicts the findings by Kalika et al.
Thorne et al. Previous research has shown that self-compassion is associated with a variety of positive eating behaviours, individuals with higher levels of self-compassion tend to have lower levels of disordered eating, as well as more intuitive eating that relies on satiety cues and lower dietary restraint [ 82 ].
Furthermore, high self-compassion has been linked to more mindful eating, lower disordered eating, and lower BMI [ 53 , 54 , 88 ]. In addition, previous findings also demonstrated a clear link between self-compassion and mindful eating [ 31 , 46 ], which was replicated by the findings in the current study.
The present study looked at the constructs of mindful eating and there were three significant relationships with orthorexia. The subscales of eating with awareness, focused eating and hunger and satiety were all negatively associated with ON.
As previously mentioned, only three other studies looked at mindful eating, Kalika et al. This study replicated the findings of Thorne et al. A reason for contradicting findings of Kalika et al. It is interesting that ON has been negatively associated with eating with awareness as individuals with orthorexic tendencies focus on the quality of their food [ 48 ].
Hunger and satiety subscale was negatively associated with ON, suggesting that individuals high with ON respond to external food cues, like other EDs such as BED [ 64 , 65 ] and do not rely on hunger and satiety.
This confirms findings on restraint eaters and attention bias, where research suggests that individuals with restraint pathology have an increased attention bias for food cues, which results in increased food cravings and food intake [ 66 ].
These findings are very interesting, however, caution needs to be taken when interpreting the findings. Keyte et al. Furthermore, Mantzios [ 50 ] has suggested that hunger and satiety may in fact not relate to mindful eating, but to the decision-making prior to engaging in eating.
While there are several limitations that have been highlighted in measuring mindful eating, and the choice of using the MEBS was the best choice available, future research should aim to develop and explore mindful eating through more valid and appropriate measures.
This is the first study that investigated the eating disorder quality of life in relation to ON. Past research has demonstrated that individuals with eating disorders display poor quality of life Agh et al. Exploring QoL is important, especially in association with ON, as there are no known interventions for orthorexia.
The current study has also utilised the use of ONI to assess the severity of ON in the current sample. Most of the research into ON has used scales such as Dusseldorf Orthorexia Scale and ORTHO e. Only two studies to date have used ONI [ 44 , 72 ] which showed a similar mean score as the present study.
The current study showed a mean of The present study had the lowest mean score compared to the other two studies, which could be a result of using specific populations such as nutrition and psychology students [ 72 ].
In addition, several moderation analyses were conducted between orthorexia and eating disorder quality of life with moderators being mindfulness, self-compassion and mindful eating. The current study found significant moderators to be self-compassion and the awareness aspect of mindfulness.
The findings in the present study showed that self-compassion is a moderator at all levels with higher levels of self-compassion having a higher moderating effect on the relationship between ON and EDQOL. This suggests that higher levels of self-compassion in fact strengthen the relationship between orthorexia and quality of life.
This is an unexpected finding as the associations in the present study showed that there was a negative relationship between self-compassion and orthorexia and quality of life. Taking into account what is known about self-compassion and the associations in the present study self-compassion should have weakened the relationship between orthorexia and quality of life.
Past research has demonstrated that self-compassion in fact is interlinked with better quality of life in individuals who displayed anxious and depressive symptoms [ 91 ].
The findings of the present study go against this suggesting that individuals with high orthorexic tendencies and high self-compassion will demonstrate a worse quality of life. A reason for this could be that individuals with high self-compassion believe that engaging in healthy eating rituals and physical activity are means of improving their optimum health and a form of self-care [ 30 , 49 , 51 ], however, orthorexic tendencies have been shown to impact an individual in a social and psychological way resulting in lower quality of life.
Another significant moderator was the awareness facet of mindfulness, acting with awareness suggesting that the individual is focusing all the attention on a current activity Brown et al.
Again, this goes against the associations presented in the present study as there were negative relationships between awareness and orthorexia and quality of life.
Research has shown that individuals with high orthorexic tendencies often obsess about their eating behaviours and regimen [ 11 ]. Acting with awareness was also a moderator at all levels with higher levels of awareness having a higher effect on the relationship between ON and EDQOL.
The findings of the present study go against our understanding of utilising self-compassion and mindfulness concepts in populations with disordered eating, mindfulness-based interventions have been shown to be effective as a treatment for eating disorders e.
Research shows that self-compassion and mindfulness promote healthy eating e. A clear limitation of this study is the female-only sample, therefore the findings cannot be generalised to male populations. Gender differences are consistently observed in eating pathology [ 9 , 85 ] and some studies into ON has shown that symptomology has been greater in men than women e.
However, findings into ON research are inconsistent as other studies in fact show that the symptomology is greater in women e. Therefore, future research should focus on equal male recruitment and conducting studies with male-only populations as there is a lack of literature across the field.
Furthermore, the present study has utilised the ONI to measure the ON severity in this sample. This is a new measure of ON that has only been used in two previous studies [ 44 , 72 ], even though this measure assesses physical impairments and emotional distress.
Caution should be taken as the ONI should be used as a measure to assess the risk of ON development, rather than a diagnostic tool. Additionally, previous research that supports and contradicts the findings of the present study have used different measures of ON such as DOS and TOS Kalika et al.
For example, Kalika et al. Therefore, future research should utilise the ONI as a measure of ON to further investigate concepts of mindfulness and self-compassion. Another limitation is that only associations of EDQOL can be made to ONI due to the sample not having been diagnosed with ON.
The conclusions drawn from this measure can only be that those with higher ONI had poorer ED quality of life, and conversely, those with lower or less ON symptoms did not have better QOL, but that their eating or weight did not affect their quality of life. Therefore, future research using the EDQOL should use a sample that consists of individuals meeting the recent diagnostic criteria for ON.
There is a need for qualitative research to be conducted on the ON populations. Exploring qualitative research will allow a further understanding of how self-compassion, mindfulness and mindful eating are utilised in this population.
There is limited literature available that has explored ON qualitatively e. There is also the question about the pleasure of eating, as suggested by Egan and Mantzios [ 31 ] in their qualitative study, where individuals could engage in unhealthy eating behaviours due to utilising the concept of self-kindness and treating themselves with unhealthy foods, which in turn, could lead to weight gain.
Egan and Mantzios [ 31 ] further explained that social aspects rather than actual food are derivative of individuals finding pleasure in eating, and it would be beneficial to see whether that trend also occurs in orthorexic populations when past research has indicated that they usually avoid social situations [ 15 ], Sfeir et al.
Future research should investigate self-compassion, mindfulness, and orthorexia nervosa using an experimental approach with mindfulness-based and self-compassion-based interventions to help determine their effectiveness. As orthorexia research advances, developing interventions for this disorder will become increasingly important.
The present research offers novel insight into ON, mindfulness, self-compassion, and mindful eating. This study has demonstrated that there is a negative association between mindfulness and orthorexia, and this relationship was also replicated with self-compassion and two subscales of mindful eating.
The potential benefits are apparent as these constructs could offer an effective tool in treating orthorexia in female populations.
Furthermore, the present study is the first study that has explored eating disordered quality of life and orthorexia, potentially adding to the discussion of classification and addition to clinical disordered eating protocols.
Previous studies provided evidence that orthorexic eating behaviours have a relationship between mindfulness, mindful eating and self-compassion. However, the findings in relation to these constructs have been mixed, proposing the need for further research.
This study explored orthorexic behaviours by using the new Orthorexia Nervosa Inventory ONI and its relationship to self-compassion, mindfulness and mindful eating, The results supported previous findings that indicated that there was a negative relationship between orthorexia and mindfulness, self-compassion and mindful eating.
Furthermore, the present study found a positive relationship between lower quality of life and orthorexia. Moreover, the findings indicated that self-compassion and the awareness facet of the mindfulness questionnaire moderated the relationship between Orthorexia Nervosa and Quality of Life.
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