Anthocyanins and metabolism boosting -
C3G reduced lipid accumulation in brown adipose tissue, with induction of oxygen consumption and energy expenditure measured by indirect calorimetry. These metabolic alterations could be the result of PPAR activation; however, these effects were negated in PPARα-deficient mice. These findings suggest that PPARα is a major target protein for C3G in the regulation of energy metabolism.
In conclusion, in this study, we demonstrate that the molecular targets of the small molecule C3G are PPARs and that C3G induces glucose and fatty acid catabolism to improve glucose tolerance and hepatic steatosis in HFD-fed mice.
Increased thermogenic gene expression in brown adipose tissue, and increased energy expenditure collectively caused the metabolic alterations induced by C3G. Commercially available materials and reagents are listed in Supplementary Table 5.
Stock of C3G and fenofibrate were prepared in ddH 2 O and DMSO, respectively, and used for the treatment of the cells. Kyunggido, Korea , and PPARα-deficient mice were purchased from Taconic Hudson, NY, USA. Male mice were used in the experiments.
Animal Inc. Body weight was assessed weekly. All animal experiments were performed according to a protocol approved by the Animal Experiment Committee of Korea University Protocol No.
Sample preparation and detailed methods for CE-MS and GC-TOF-MS are presented in the Supplementary Methods. Statistical analysis was performed with GraphPad Prism 8.
For metabolomic analysis, ANOVA was performed using SPSS Version PCA and PLSR were used to distinguish different diets on the basis of the content of metabolites in samples and to explore the correlations between metabolites and obesity-related biochemical parameters.
Further information on research design is available in the Nature Research Reporting Summary linked to this article. Source data underlying plots shown in figures are available in Supplementary Data 1.
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This research was supported by the School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology for BK21 PLUS, Korea University. Department of Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, BK21 PLUS. Korea University, Seoul, , Republic of Korea. Department of Food Science and Engineering, Ewha Womans University, Seoul, , Republic of Korea.
School of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Seoul National University, Seoul, , Republic of Korea. You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar.
conceived the study; Y. designed experiments; S. and M. performed metabolomic analysis; Y. performed indirect calorimetry and fatty acid oxidation experiments; J. performed glucose uptake and gene expression experiments; Y. performed immunoblotting analysis; Y.
performed animal experiments; Y. and T. performed and interpreted ligand activity assays. wrote the manuscript. Correspondence to Sung-Joon Lee. Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4. Reprints and permissions. A dietary anthocyanin cyanidin O -glucoside binds to PPARs to regulate glucose metabolism and insulin sensitivity in mice.
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Skip to main content Thank you for visiting nature. nature communications biology articles article. Download PDF. Subjects Agriculture Biomedical materials Fats Metabolic syndrome. Abstract We demonstrate the mechanism by which C3G, a major dietary anthocyanin, regulates energy metabolism and insulin sensitivity.
Introduction Cyanidin O -glucoside C3G is a major flavonoid anthocyanin in plant-based foods, such as leafy vegetables, berries, red cabbages, teas, and coloured grains 1 , 2.
Results C3G reduced dyslipidemia and hyperglycemia in HFD-fed mice First, we performed mouse feeding studies with oral administration of C3G to mice fed a high-fat diet HFD. Full size image. Table 1 Major liver metabolites from mice fed a HFD and C3G for 8 weeks using CE-MS and GC-TOF-MS.
Full size table. Discussion Several reports have also revealed the diverse biological activities of cyanidin aglycone and C3G, including the regulation of lipid and glucose metabolism, oxidative stress, and inflammation 1 , 18 , 19 ; however, none of these studies have clearly demonstrated the direct molecular targets of C3G.
Methods Materials and reagents Commercially available materials and reagents are listed in Supplementary Table 5. Metabolomic analysis Sample preparation and detailed methods for CE-MS and GC-TOF-MS are presented in the Supplementary Methods. Reporting summary Further information on research design is available in the Nature Research Reporting Summary linked to this article.
Data availability Source data underlying plots shown in figures are available in Supplementary Data 1. References Olivas-Aguirre, F. Article PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar Deng, G. Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar Yang, L.
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Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Cassidy, A. Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Winkel-Shirley, B.
Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Zhao, J. Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar Czank, C. Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar Rakic, V. Article Google Scholar Higgs, G. CAS PubMed Google Scholar Yuan, M. Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar Hawley, S.
Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Kimura, I. Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar Aisenberg, W. Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Khoo, H. Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar Rozanska, D. Article PubMed Google Scholar Zhang, J. Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar Fan, W.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar Hondares, E. Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Hiukka, A. Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar Jeremic, N. Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar Ahmadian, M. Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar Moller, D. Article CAS Google Scholar Yamazaki, T.
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Article CAS PubMed Central Google Scholar Chypre, M. A total of 13 RCTs involving participants with T2DM were eligible for the final analysis 9 , 48 — All of these articles investigated FBG, 9 of them evaluated HbA 1c , involving participants with T2DM 9 , 48 — 50 , 53 — 56 , 59 , 5 of them analyzed 2-h postprandial glucose levels in participants with T2DM 9 , 49 , 51 , 52 , 54 , 6 of them assessed fasting insulin in participants with T2DM 50 , 51 , 53 — 56 , and 4 of them explored HOMA-IR in participants with T2DM 50 , 54 — Out of these articles, 8 studies analyzed the lipid profile, including TG patients with T2DM 9 , 48 , 50 , 52 — 56 , TC, HDL, and LDL patients with T2DM 9 , 48 , 50 , 51 , 53 — 56 , Out of these articles, 6 reported SBP and DBP in patients with T2GM 9 , 48 , 50 , 51 , 53 , The different features of the selected RCTs are listed in Table 2 , of which 2 were crossover RCTs 48 , 51 and 11 were parallel RCTs 9 , 49 , 50 , 52 — 57 , 59 , These RCTs were carried out in an outpatient context, with 6 conducted in the Middle East, 5 in Asia, and 2 in North America.
In the 13 RCTs that were included, a total of patients with T2DM were investigated. Individual Cochrane Risk of Bias assessment has been presented in Figure 1C for each included RCT.
The findings indicate that all included RCTs had a low risk of bias for random sequence generation, blinding performance bias and detection bias , incomplete outcome data, and selective reporting. More than half Other studies exhibited a low risk of allocation concealment 49 , 52 , 53 , The majority of the RCTs exhibited a low risk of blinding bias for participants and personnel and detection of outcome assessment 9 , 48 — 50 , 52 , 53 , 55 — 57 , 59 , except three of them had an obvious serious risk of blinding bias 51 , 54 , All the RCTs were graded to have an unclear or low risk of other bias.
Anthocyanins have been reported to exert positive effects on glycemic regulation as well as insulin resistance due to their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory capacities, by different research studies.
In order to have a better understanding of the degree of the beneficial effects in patients with T2DM, we systematically evaluated the findings on the effect of anthocyanins on specific glycemic and insulin resistance markers including FBG, HbA 1c , 2-h postprandial blood glucose, fasting insulin, and HOMA-IR.
The impact of anthocyanins on HbA 1c in patients with T2DM was assessed in nine RCTs comprising participants 9 , 48 — 50 , 53 — 56 , In the anthocyanin intervention group, HbA 1c was substantially reduced by 0. Besides, further trim-and-fill analysis also did not identify any missing studies.
Figure 2. A—E Meta-analysis of the effect of anthocyanins on HbA 1c A , fasting blood glucose B , 2-h postprandial glucose C , fasting insulin D , and HOMA-IR E in patients with type 2 diabetes.
Diamonds represent the pooled effect estimate for overall analysis. The impact of anthocyanins on fasting blood glucose FBG was evaluated in 13 RCTs involving T2DM patients 9 , 48 — 57 , 59 , All of the studies reported a reduction in FBG value after the intervention with pure anthocyanin supplements or foods with anthocyanins.
Subgroup analysis without including the study indicating heterogeneity revealed no significant results between groups with an intervention length greater than 8 weeks and length less than 8 weeks Supplementary Figure 2B.
All of the included studies demonstrated a reduction in 2-h postprandial glucose level after intervention with anthocyanins in patients with T2DM.
Galbraith plot test found that the studies conducted by Kianbakht et al. The impact of anthocyanins on fasting insulin and HOMA-IR in patients with T2DM was evaluated in six studies involving patients with T2DM 50 , 51 , 53 — 56 and four studies involving patients with T2DM 50 , 54 — 56 , respectively.
No significant result was found in both fasting insulin level WMD 0. The further non-parametric trim-and-fill analysis found one missing study for fasting insulin, which was then imputed, and the mean difference increased to 0.
Overall, the intervention of anthocyanins significantly decreased FBG value by 0. However, the results were insignificant regarding fasting insulin and HOMA-IR.
Patients with T2DM are particularly vulnerable to dyslipidemia, which is closely linked to the development of cardiovascular diseases, the primary comorbidity in patients with T2DM This is related to chronic inflammation due to long-term hyperglycemia.
Anthocyanins have been found to be effective as anti-inflammatory and as antioxidative bioactive compounds, however, it is unclear to what extent they affect the lipid profile of patients with T2DM.
The only available study on this aspect has included multiple types of participants in the analysis such as healthy people and patients with cardiovascular diseases Thus far, no studies have addressed the effects of anthocyanins in patients with T2DM only.
In addition, our study is the only study evaluating the impact of anthocyanins on lipid profile including TG, TC, HDL cholesterol, and LDL cholesterol in patients with T2DM. The impact of anthocyanins on TG was assessed in six studies with a total of T2DM patients 9 , 48 , 50 , 52 — Further heterogeneity analysis by the Galbraith plot indicated that the study by Stote et al.
One missing trial was found by additional trim-and-fill analysis. Figure 3. A—D Meta-analysis of the effect of anthocyanins on lipid profile — triglycerides TG, A , total cholesterol TC, B , high-density lipoprotein cholesterol HDL, C , and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol LDL, D in patients with type 2 diabetes.
The impact of anthocyanins on total cholesterol TC was analyzed in six studies with patients with T2DM 9 , 48 , 50 , 51 , 53 — The leave-one-out sensitivity analysis stated that after excluding Schell et al.
The subgroup analysis based on the source of anthocyanins also explained the heterogeneity Supplementary Figure 5B , as between-study heterogeneity was only found in the studies using anthocyanins from fruit extracts.
After including the two missing studies, the impact size was adjusted to 0. The impact of anthocyanins on HDL was explored in six studies in patients with T2DM 9 , 48 , 50 , 51 , 53 — 56 and no significant results were observed WMD 0. The subsequent leave-one-out sensitivity analysis observed that the studies by Dashti et al.
The modified effect of anthocyanin intervention on blood HDL level was 0. Overall, our results found that anthocyanins, either from fruit extracts or supplements, significantly reduced TG and LDL, with an absolute reduction of 0.
However, no significant results were found regarding TC and HDL levels. Further analysis indicated that pure anthocyanin supplements exhibited a higher reduction in TC and improvement in HDL cholesterol than fruit extracts.
There is a need for more well-designed long-term RCTs to figure out the impact of anthocyanin supplements in the diet on the blood lipid profile. There is a high prevalence of hypertension among patients with T2DM compared to those without diabetes, affecting more than Diabetes-induced chronic hyperglycemic and insulin resistance leads to increased vascular oxidative stress, inflammation, and endothelial dysfunction, which in turn promote vascular stiffness or aging, resulting in an increase in blood pressure and the onset of cardiovascular disease 64 , Therefore, control of blood pressure in patients with T2DM is critically important to delay the onset of other complications.
The impact of anthocyanins on systolic blood pressure was tested in six studies with a total of patients with T2DM 9 , 48 , 50 , 51 , 53 , Figure 4. A,B Meta-analysis of the effect of anthocyanins on blood pressure—systolic blood pressure A and diastolic blood pressure B in patients with type 2 diabetes.
The impact of anthocyanins on diastolic blood pressure was analyzed in six studies with patients with T2DM 9 , 48 , 50 , 51 , 53 , Further leave-one-out sensitivity analysis found that the studies by Lee et al. After including the two missing studies, the impact size was adjusted to 1. Overall, no significant effects were found regarding the impact of anthocyanin intervention on human blood pressure in the clinical trials evaluated.
More long-term RCTs are needed to further investigate the effect of anthocyanins on human blood pressure. The evidence of anthocyanins significantly reducing the glycemic indexes FBG, HbA 1c , and 2-h postprandial glucose and lipid profile TG and LDL cholesterol was graded according to GRADE Criteria and summarized in Table 4.
Although publication bias was detected, evidence for FBG was of large effect size and thus rated as high quality in terms of grade. The effects estimated for HbA 1c were also rated as high quality as no downgrade was observed of inconsistency, imprecision, or publication bias.
The evidence for 2-h postprandial glucose was rated as moderate as inconsistency was found to be serious. The evidence for TG and LDL cholesterol were also rated as moderate owing to the inconsistency reported.
However, we did not grade the evidence for fasting insulin, HOMA-IR, TC, HDL, SBP, and DBP as the results for these outcomes were not significant. There is a need for more RCTs studying these parameters that were not evaluated to figure out the impact of anthocyanins on these parameters in patients with T2DM and related cardiovascular diseases.
Table 4. Critical and important evidence for the different markers in randomized trials RTs evaluated based on GRADE criteria. The current systematic review and meta-analysis involved 13 RCTs including participants and evaluated the impact of anthocyanins on glycemic indicators, insulin resistance, and cardiovascular biomarkers including lipid profile and blood pressure in patients with T2DM.
This is supported by Neyestani et al. Our findings were also consistent with that observed by a meta-analysis evaluating 32 studies performed with both healthy and cardiometabolic diseased populations on the effect of anthocyanins from fruit extracts or supplements. The meta-analysis also reported significant reductions in HbA 1c , FBG, and 2-h postprandial glucose, with an average effect of 0.
Furthermore, Tiwari et al. Our findings from the subgroup analysis indicated that the reduction of HbA 1c was found to be dependent on the source of anthocyanins.
It may be related to other phytochemicals or synergistic effects of different phytochemicals contained in the fruit extracts as well as the dosage of anthocyanins, however, details about the other compounds present that could be playing a role are lacking in these publications.
The Grade assessment indicated that our findings about HbA 1c and FBG were high quality and about 2-h postprandial glucose was moderate quality.
The mechanisms by which anthocyanins reduce glycemic responses are ascribed to the ability of anthocyanins to inhibit the key enzyme α-glucosidase, which is responsible for the conversion of sucrose to glucose during digestion in the intestinal epithelium 66 , Besides, anthocyanins also affect glucose absorption in the intestine, mediated by active Na-dependent and independent transport via sodium-glucose co-transporter 1 SGLT1 and glucose transporter 2 GLUT2 , respectively, in Caco-2 cells of the intestine and HepG2 cells 20 , 66 , Moreover, consumption of anthocyanins was found to promote glycogen synthesis and lower gluconeogenesis in HepG2 cells and adipocytes by upregulating peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ PPARγ , a hormone that regulates adiponectin and the transcription of proteins involved in glucose and fatty acid cellular uptake, leading to lower FBG 68 — Yan et al.
Although in our study no significant effects of anthocyanins on insulin resistance were observed, few of the studies included in the meta-analysis found that patients with T2DM could benefit from the intake of anthocyanins by reporting decreased fasting insulin and HOMA-IR levels 51 , 53 , The mechanisms elucidated indicate that chronic hyperglycemia causes insulin resistance, which inhibits insulin from decreasing serum glucose levels in humans.
The intake of anthocyanins has also been described to activate the phosphorylation of protein kinase B AKT , mitogen-activated protein MAP kinase pathway, phosphatidylinositol-e-kinase PI3K , and AMP-activated protein kinase pathways, leading to improvement in insulin sensitivity requiring lower levels of insulin to lower blood glucose.
However, the underlying mechanisms involved have not been elucidated 6 , 18 , Therefore, more RCTs are needed to have a better understanding of the underlying mechanisms of the effects of anthocyanins on insulin resistance in patients with T2DM.
Long-term hyperglycemia induces inflammation in patients with T2DM, characterized by the formation of glycosylation end products of non-enzymatic glucose reactions with proteins or lipoproteins in the arterial walls and low-density lipoprotein particles in the blood, leading to dyslipidemia, which is a notable risk factor of cardiovascular disease in patients with T2DM.
Dyslipidemia is identified by the imbalance of lipids including elevated concentration of TG and apo B-containing lipoproteins, lower HDL, and higher LDL cholesterol In our results, TG and LDL cholesterol were found to have significant reductions with the consumption of anthocyanins Figures 3A , D , and the evidence was graded as moderate quality.
There was no significant effect of anthocyanin intervention on total and HDL cholesterol, but the subgroup analysis revealed that the pure anthocyanin supplemented group reduced total cholesterol level and increased HDL more than the intervention with anthocyanins from the fruit extracts group.
The difference could be associated with the presence of different polyphenols and other bioactive components in the fruit extracts that also induce varying effects on the blood lipid profile.
Overall, anthocyanins were effective in improving lipid profile status in patients with T2DM based on our findings for TG and LDL. Yang et al. Similarly, Neyestani et al. Tiwari et al. The mechanism behind changes in different lipid markers by consumption of anthocyanins is related to improving the functionality of HDL particles and reversal in cholesterol transport Anthocyanins were reported to improve the outflow capacity of HDL particles by inhibiting cholesteryl ester transfer protein CETP in dyslipidemia subjects Furthermore, in another study, the antioxidant effect of anthocyanins improved paraoxonase-1 activity in HDL particles, which led to enhanced functionality of HDL particles in hypercholesteremic subjects One study stated that the possible mechanism for improvement in lipid profile by anthocyanins is associated with its effect on lipid peroxidation Moreover, Yao et al.
The evidence suggests the beneficial effects of anthocyanins on lipid profile in patients with T2DM. However, more studies are required to understand the varied effects of anthocyanin on the accumulation, deposition, and storage of different types of cholesterol and triglycerides in different types of cells and tissues.
Our findings indicated that anthocyanin consumption leads to a reduction in systolic and diastolic blood pressure, but the results were not significant, and between-study heterogeneity was observed among the included trials Figures 4A , B.
Consistently, another meta-analysis and systematic review also reported that the effects of anthocyanins on both healthy people and those with cardiometabolic diseases 24 on blood pressure SBP and DBP was not statistically significant and had heterogeneity of Other evidence from studies on the effect of anthocyanins on blood pressure was also inconsistent.
For instance, the consumption of pomegranate juice, a rich source of anthocyanins led to blood pressure reductions Similarly, two studies using berries as the major source of anthocyanins reported positive effects of anthocyanins in lowering systolic blood pressure and diastolic blood pressure 26 , However, in a meta-analysis of six studies based on RCTs, the consumption of blueberries did not lower blood pressure systolic and diastolic Two studies conducted on the effect of anthocyanins on blood pressure 25 , 81 concluded that anthocyanins had no substantial effect on the blood pressure of the subjects.
The inconsistencies in these findings are owing to the varying dosage of anthocyanins used and the varied combination of anthocyanins and other bioactive compounds including soluble and insoluble dietary fiber present in the fruits and extracts utilized, which have varying impacts on the blood pressure levels However, for increased confidence, more studies need to be analyzed to understand the dosage effect of anthocyanins in T2DM for different fruit extracts and effective dosage.
In addition, the activity of anthocyanins is subject to environmental conditions, including pH and temperature, that affect the bioavailability of anthocyanins. Anthocyanins are not stable at neutral pH and physiological temperature and can interact with other food components, such as proteins and carbohydrates, affecting their bioavailability on consumption 2 , This means that they are susceptible to gastrointestinal pH highly acidic in gastric and alkaline in intestinal phases , enzymes, and gut microbes and these factors lead to the absorption and release of limited amounts of anthocyanins in blood and urine 2 , All these reasons limit the application of anthocyanins in the treatment of T2DM.
In addition, the beneficial effects of anthocyanins tend to be underestimated as most of the anthocyanins consumed do not get absorbed in the stomach or small intestine and reach the colon in their intact form 2. The small amount of absorbed anthocyanins is metabolized further in the liver or kidneys 2 , These metabolites of anthocyanins, including gallic acid, protocatechuic acid, benzoic acids, vanillic acid, syringic acid, and phase 2 metabolites, are highly bioavailable 2 , 84 , 86 — For instance, the primary gut metabolite of cyanidin 3-glucoside is protocatechuic acid, which inhibits the generation of nitric oxide and the release of TNF-α, resulting in anti-inflammatory effects Another example is the main gut metabolite of delphinidinglucoside-gallic acid.
It plays an important role in inhibiting both inflammation and atherosclerosis by reducing the secretion of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1, intercellular adhesion molecule 1, and vascular cell adhesion molecule 1 by endothelial cells In addition, the anthocyanin metabolites gallic acid, 3-o-methylgallic acid, and 2,4,6-trihydroxybenzaldehyde have been proven to substantially reduce human colon cancer cell viability All of these metabolites exhibit beneficial health effects, however, the rate and extent of the absorption and metabolism of the anthocyanins and production of metabolites in the gut, is not well understood.
Therefore, it is better to develop an effective delivery system to transport anthocyanins directly to the target tissue or organ, slow their release, and maximize their beneficial effects. The meta-analysis of 13 RCTs illustrated that anthocyanins were beneficial in improving glycemic parameters in patients with T2DM, including HbA 1c , FBG, and 2-h postprandial glucose values.
Our GRADE assessment also rated the evidence for the effect of anthocyanins in reducing HbA 1c and FBG with high certainty and 2-h postprandial glucose level with moderate certainty. Furthermore, anthocyanins from fruit extracts or powder showed a significantly higher effect in lowering HbA 1c than pure supplements.
In terms of insulin resistance, no significant results were observed regarding the effects of anthocyanins on both fasting insulin and HOMA-IR.
More long-term RCTs studying varied dosages of anthocyanins are required to further evaluate these effects and underlying mechanisms. Anthocyanins were effective in improving the lipid profile of patients with T2DM including reducing the levels of TG and LDL cholesterol. This further supported anthocyanins as an effective alternative for the prevention and treatment of disorders of lipid metabolism in patients with T2DM.
Thus, the consumption of anthocyanins has the potential to delay the progress of T2DM and improve the lipid profile related to cardiovascular diseases. However, further studies are needed to explain the varied effects of anthocyanin consumption on the individual lipid components, especially TC and HDL cholesterol, as we did not observe significant results in either of them.
The underlying mechanisms involved in the activity of anthocyanins in T2DM and cardiovascular disease patients are vaguely understood, but more in-vitro , in-vivo , and animal studies are also needed to understand the role of different anthocyanins in these health conditions.
Overall, we concluded that increased anthocyanin consumption, especially anthocyanin-rich fruit extracts or powder, is a promising remedy for managing glycemic markers and improving lipid profile in patients with T2DM. Increasing the number of human clinical trials and meta-analyses in this area will enable us to elucidate the optimal dosage, as well as the intervention duration required for pure anthocyanin supplements in patients with T2DM.
In addition, the utilization of fruit powders and extracts could provide sustainable low-cost alternatives for mitigating the incidence and reducing the rate of progression of T2DM and related cardiovascular diseases.
Further studies are required to map out the individual, complementary, and synergistic effects of different bioactive molecules including anthocyanins, flavonoids, and dietary fiber present in fruit powders and extracts, which will enable the designing of effective supplements and dietary intervention dosages and formulations.
Moreover, it is necessary to investigate nanocarriers or other effective delivery systems to transport anthocyanins to the target tissue or organ in order to increase the stability, bioavailability, and therapeutic effects of anthocyanins in patients with T2DM. TM: conceptualization, investigation, methodology, formal analysis, writing—original draft, and writing—review and editing.
FA: investigation, methodology, writing—original draft, and writing—review and editing. MM: conceptualization, supervision, methodology, project administration, and writing—review and editing. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.
This work is supported by the USDA National Institute of Food and Agriculture, Hatch project [SD00H]. The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be constructed as a potential conflict of interest.
All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.
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Thank you for boostijg nature. Leafy greens for pesto are using a browser Menstrual health concerns with metabolis support for Anthlcyanins. To obtain the best experience, we recommend Anthocyanins and metabolism boosting use a more anc to date browser or turn off compatibility boosfing Polyphenol-rich diet Boowting Explorer. In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript. High-fat HF diets are thought to disrupt the profile of the gut microbiota in a manner that may contribute to the neuroinflammation and neurobehavioral changes observed in obesity. Accordingly, we hypothesize that by preventing HF-diet induced dysbiosis it is possible to prevent neuroinflammation and the consequent neurological disorders. Anthocyanins are flavonoids found in berries that exhibit anti-neuroinflammatory properties in the context of obesity. Polyphenol-rich diet Ming Hu College of Pharmacy University of Houston Houston TX United Antjocyanins. ISSN Print : Polyphenol-rich diet Online : DOI: Anthocyanins boostinf the largest group of water-soluble pigments in the plant kingdom. As with other polyphenols, they express antioxidant activity in vivo. Anthocyanins are associated with reduced risk of some several diseases, such as atherosclerosis and diabetes. Their beneficial health effects depend on the efficiency of their absorption.
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