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Physiology of Insulin and GlucagonPromoting steady insulin release -
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Lausanne 10 , Download references. We thank Tatiane Ramos, Emerielle Vanzela and Bil for technical assistance. Obesity and Comorbidities Research Center, Institute of Biology, University of Campinas UNICAMP , Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil. Educational Union of Cascavel—UNIVEL, Cascavel, Paraná, Brazil.
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and J. contributed to research design, and G. conducted the experiments and acquired data. provided all reagents. contributed to data analysis and interpretation. wrote the manuscript. revised the manuscript. All authors reviewed and approved the final version of the manuscript.
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nature scientific reports articles article. Download PDF. Subjects Cell biology Diseases Endocrinology Molecular biology Physiology Systems biology. Abstract Resistance exercise exerts beneficial effects on glycemic control, which could be mediated by exercise-induced humoral factors released in the bloodstream.
Introduction Insulin resistance imposes an increase in the demand for pancreatic beta-cell to produce and secrete insulin. Results Resistance exercise training induces adaptation in mice Firstly, we evaluated the maximum voluntary carrying capacity MVCC to assess the efficiency of our training program.
Figure 1. Full size image. Table 1 Final characterization of Control CON and Resistance exercise training RET mice. Full size table. Figure 2. Figure 3. Figure 4. Discussion Here, we provide evidence to suggest that resistance training improves glucose tolerance and reduces fed and fasting state glycemia.
Material and methods Experimental animals All experiments were approved by the Animal Care Committee at UNICAMP License Number: and performed in accordance with relevant named guidelines and regulations. Description of apparatus for performing resistance exercise training for mice To perform the resistance exercise protocol, a ladder of iron feet and stainless steel steps was used.
Maximum voluntary carrying capacity MVCC determination and resistance exercise training protocol Resistance exercise training was performed according to the animal model described by Hornberger and Farrar 52 with some modifications. Intraperitoneal glucose ipGTT and insulin ipITT tolerance tests On the 8th week of the training program, mice were subjected to 6 h fasting after the training session, to perform the ipGTT.
Plasma insulin measurement For insulin measurements, blood samples were collected in fed and fasted states at the end of the training program. Islet isolation, insulin secretion and insulin content For static insulin secretion, islets were isolated by collagenase digestion of the pancreas.
INS-1E cell culture and treatment Rat insulin-producing INS-1E cells a kind gift from Professor C. Insulin secretion in INS-1E cells After the culture treatment period, INS-1E cells seeded in well culture plates were incubated for 1 h at 37 °C in KBB without glucose.
Data availability All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article and its Supplementary Information files. References Prentki, M. Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Cnop, M.
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Article CAS Google Scholar Soares, G. Article Google Scholar Download references. Acknowledgements We thank Tatiane Ramos, Emerielle Vanzela and Bil for technical assistance. View author publications. Ethics declarations Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests.
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Cite this article Bronczek, G. Copy to clipboard. This article is cited by Exercise as a non-pharmacological intervention to protect pancreatic beta cells in individuals with type 1 and type 2 diabetes Alexandra Coomans de Brachène Corentin Scoubeau Decio L. Eizirik Diabetologia Moderate intensity aerobic training reduces the signs of peripheral sensitization in a mouse model of type 2 diabetes mellitus Isaac O.
Pérez-Martinez Saul E. Cifuentes-Mendiola Ana L. García-Hernández Experimental Brain Research Comments By submitting a comment you agree to abide by our Terms and Community Guidelines. About the journal Open Access Fees and Funding About Scientific Reports Contact Journal policies Calls for Papers Guide to referees Editor's Choice Journal highlights.
Publish with us For authors Language editing services Submit manuscript. Search Search articles by subject, keyword or author. Show results from All journals This journal. The second phase is a sustained, slow release of newly formed vesicles triggered independently of sugar, peaking in 2 to 3 hours.
The two phases of the insulin release suggest that insulin granules are present in diverse stated populations or "pools". During the first phase of insulin exocytosis, most of the granules predispose for exocytosis are released after the calcium internalization.
This pool is known as Readily Releasable Pool RRP. The RRP granules represent 0. During the second phase of exocytosis, insulin granules require mobilization of granules to the plasma membrane and a previous preparation to undergo their release.
This pool is known as a Reserve Pool RP. This is the primary mechanism for release of insulin. Other substances known to stimulate insulin release include the amino acids arginine and leucine, parasympathetic release of acetylcholine acting via the phospholipase C pathway , sulfonylurea , cholecystokinin CCK, also via phospholipase C , [57] and the gastrointestinally derived incretins , such as glucagon-like peptide-1 GLP-1 and glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide GIP.
Release of insulin is strongly inhibited by norepinephrine noradrenaline , which leads to increased blood glucose levels during stress. It appears that release of catecholamines by the sympathetic nervous system has conflicting influences on insulin release by beta cells, because insulin release is inhibited by α 2 -adrenergic receptors [58] and stimulated by β 2 -adrenergic receptors.
When the glucose level comes down to the usual physiologic value, insulin release from the β-cells slows or stops. If the blood glucose level drops lower than this, especially to dangerously low levels, release of hyperglycemic hormones most prominently glucagon from islet of Langerhans alpha cells forces release of glucose into the blood from the liver glycogen stores, supplemented by gluconeogenesis if the glycogen stores become depleted.
By increasing blood glucose, the hyperglycemic hormones prevent or correct life-threatening hypoglycemia. In a normal person the blood glucose level is corrected and may even be slightly over-corrected by the end of the test.
An insulin spike is a 'first response' to blood glucose increase, this response is individual and dose specific although it was always previously assumed to be food type specific only. The effects of insulin are initiated by its binding to a receptor, the insulin receptor IR , present in the cell membrane.
The receptor molecule contains an α- and β subunits. Two molecules are joined to form what is known as a homodimer. Insulin binds to the α-subunits of the homodimer, which faces the extracellular side of the cells. The β subunits have tyrosine kinase enzyme activity which is triggered by the insulin binding.
This activity provokes the autophosphorylation of the β subunits and subsequently the phosphorylation of proteins inside the cell known as insulin receptor substrates IRS. The phosphorylation of the IRS activates a signal transduction cascade that leads to the activation of other kinases as well as transcription factors that mediate the intracellular effects of insulin.
The cascade that leads to the insertion of GLUT4 glucose transporters into the cell membranes of muscle and fat cells, and to the synthesis of glycogen in liver and muscle tissue, as well as the conversion of glucose into triglycerides in liver, adipose, and lactating mammary gland tissue, operates via the activation, by IRS-1, of phosphoinositol 3 kinase PI3K.
This enzyme converts a phospholipid in the cell membrane by the name of phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate PIP2 , into phosphatidylinositol 3,4,5-triphosphate PIP3 , which, in turn, activates protein kinase B PKB.
Activated PKB facilitates the fusion of GLUT4 containing endosomes with the cell membrane, resulting in an increase in GLUT4 transporters in the plasma membrane.
The active enzyme, glycogen synthase GS , catalyzes the rate limiting step in the synthesis of glycogen from glucose. Similar dephosphorylations affect the enzymes controlling the rate of glycolysis leading to the synthesis of fats via malonyl-CoA in the tissues that can generate triglycerides , and also the enzymes that control the rate of gluconeogenesis in the liver.
The overall effect of these final enzyme dephosphorylations is that, in the tissues that can carry out these reactions, glycogen and fat synthesis from glucose are stimulated, and glucose production by the liver through glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis are inhibited.
After the intracellular signal that resulted from the binding of insulin to its receptor has been produced, termination of signaling is then needed.
As mentioned below in the section on degradation, endocytosis and degradation of the receptor bound to insulin is a main mechanism to end signaling. The structure of the insulin— insulin receptor complex has been determined using the techniques of X-ray crystallography. Insulin also influences other body functions, such as vascular compliance and cognition.
Once insulin enters the human brain, it enhances learning and memory and benefits verbal memory in particular. Once an insulin molecule has docked onto the receptor and effected its action, it may be released back into the extracellular environment, or it may be degraded by the cell.
The two primary sites for insulin clearance are the liver and the kidney. The liver clears most insulin during first-pass transit, whereas the kidney clears most of the insulin in systemic circulation.
Degradation normally involves endocytosis of the insulin-receptor complex, followed by the action of insulin-degrading enzyme.
An insulin molecule produced endogenously by the beta cells is estimated to be degraded within about one hour after its initial release into circulation insulin half-life ~ 4—6 minutes. Insulin is a major regulator of endocannabinoid EC metabolism and insulin treatment has been shown to reduce intracellular ECs, the 2-arachidonoylglycerol 2-AG and anandamide AEA , which correspond with insulin-sensitive expression changes in enzymes of EC metabolism.
In insulin-resistant adipocytes , patterns of insulin-induced enzyme expression is disturbed in a manner consistent with elevated EC synthesis and reduced EC degradation. Findings suggest that insulin-resistant adipocytes fail to regulate EC metabolism and decrease intracellular EC levels in response to insulin stimulation, whereby obese insulin-resistant individuals exhibit increased concentrations of ECs.
Hypoglycemia , also known as "low blood sugar", is when blood sugar decreases to below normal levels. The most common cause of hypoglycemia is medications used to treat diabetes mellitus such as insulin and sulfonylureas.
Biosynthetic human insulin insulin human rDNA, INN for clinical use is manufactured by recombinant DNA technology. Researchers have succeeded in introducing the gene for human insulin into plants as another method of producing insulin "biopharming" in safflower.
Several analogs of human insulin are available. These insulin analogs are closely related to the human insulin structure, and were developed for specific aspects of glycemic control in terms of fast action prandial insulins and long action basal insulins.
Other rapid-acting analogues are NovoRapid and Apidra , with similar profiles. Fast acting insulins do not require the injection-to-meal interval previously recommended for human insulin and animal insulins.
The other type is long acting insulin; the first of these was Lantus insulin glargine. These have a steady effect for an extended period from 18 to 24 hours. Likewise, another protracted insulin analogue Levemir is based on a fatty acid acylation approach. A myristic acid molecule is attached to this analogue, which associates the insulin molecule to the abundant serum albumin, which in turn extends the effect and reduces the risk of hypoglycemia.
Both protracted analogues need to be taken only once daily, and are used for type 1 diabetics as the basal insulin. A combination of a rapid acting and a protracted insulin is also available, making it more likely for patients to achieve an insulin profile that mimics that of the body's own insulin release.
Insulin is usually taken as subcutaneous injections by single-use syringes with needles , via an insulin pump , or by repeated-use insulin pens with disposable needles.
Inhaled insulin is also available in the U. Featuring extra-thin walls and a multi-bevel tapered point, these pen needles prioritise patient comfort by minimising pain and ensuring seamless medication delivery.
The product aims to provide affordable Pen Needles to the developing part of the country through its wide distribution channel.
Additionally, the universal design of these needles guarantees compatibility with all insulin pens. Unlike many medicines, insulin cannot be taken by mouth because, like nearly all other proteins introduced into the gastrointestinal tract , it is reduced to fragments, whereupon all activity is lost.
There has been some research into ways to protect insulin from the digestive tract, so that it can be administered orally or sublingually. In , the World Health Organization added insulin to its model list of essential medicines. Insulin, and all other medications, are supplied free of charge to people with diabetes by the National Health Service in the countries of the United Kingdom.
In , while studying the structure of the pancreas under a microscope , Paul Langerhans , a medical student in Berlin , identified some previously unnoticed tissue clumps scattered throughout the bulk of the pancreas. In , the physician Oskar Minkowski , in collaboration with Joseph von Mering , removed the pancreas from a healthy dog to test its assumed role in digestion.
On testing the urine, they found sugar, establishing for the first time a relationship between the pancreas and diabetes. In , another major step was taken by the American physician and scientist Eugene Lindsay Opie , when he isolated the role of the pancreas to the islets of Langerhans: "Diabetes mellitus when the result of a lesion of the pancreas is caused by destruction of the islands of Langerhans and occurs only when these bodies are in part or wholly destroyed".
Over the next two decades researchers made several attempts to isolate the islets' secretions. In George Ludwig Zuelzer achieved partial success in treating dogs with pancreatic extract, but he was unable to continue his work.
Between and , E. Scott at the University of Chicago tried aqueous pancreatic extracts and noted "a slight diminution of glycosuria", but was unable to convince his director of his work's value; it was shut down.
Israel Kleiner demonstrated similar effects at Rockefeller University in , but World War I interrupted his work and he did not return to it. In , Nicolae Paulescu developed an aqueous pancreatic extract which, when injected into a diabetic dog, had a normalizing effect on blood sugar levels.
He had to interrupt his experiments because of World War I , and in he wrote four papers about his work carried out in Bucharest and his tests on a diabetic dog.
Later that year, he published "Research on the Role of the Pancreas in Food Assimilation". The name "insulin" was coined by Edward Albert Sharpey-Schafer in for a hypothetical molecule produced by pancreatic islets of Langerhans Latin insula for islet or island that controls glucose metabolism.
Unbeknown to Sharpey-Schafer, Jean de Meyer had introduced the very similar word "insuline" in for the same molecule. In October , Canadian Frederick Banting concluded that the digestive secretions that Minkowski had originally studied were breaking down the islet secretion, thereby making it impossible to extract successfully.
A surgeon by training, Banting knew that blockages of the pancreatic duct would lead most of the pancreas to atrophy, while leaving the islets of Langerhans intact. He reasoned that a relatively pure extract could be made from the islets once most of the rest of the pancreas was gone.
He jotted a note to himself: "Ligate pancreatic ducts of dog. Keep dogs alive till acini degenerate leaving Islets. In the spring of , Banting traveled to Toronto to explain his idea to John Macleod , Professor of Physiology at the University of Toronto.
Macleod was initially skeptical, since Banting had no background in research and was not familiar with the latest literature, but he agreed to provide lab space for Banting to test out his ideas.
Macleod also arranged for two undergraduates to be Banting's lab assistants that summer, but Banting required only one lab assistant. Charles Best and Clark Noble flipped a coin; Best won the coin toss and took the first shift.
This proved unfortunate for Noble, as Banting kept Best for the entire summer and eventually shared half his Nobel Prize money and credit for the discovery with Best.
Banting and Best presented their results to Macleod on his return to Toronto in the fall of , but Macleod pointed out flaws with the experimental design, and suggested the experiments be repeated with more dogs and better equipment. He moved Banting and Best into a better laboratory and began paying Banting a salary from his research grants.
Several weeks later, the second round of experiments was also a success, and Macleod helped publish their results privately in Toronto that November. Bottlenecked by the time-consuming task of duct-tying dogs and waiting several weeks to extract insulin, Banting hit upon the idea of extracting insulin from the fetal calf pancreas, which had not yet developed digestive glands.
By December, they had also succeeded in extracting insulin from the adult cow pancreas. Macleod discontinued all other research in his laboratory to concentrate on the purification of insulin.
He invited biochemist James Collip to help with this task, and the team felt ready for a clinical test within a month. On January 11, , Leonard Thompson , a year-old diabetic who lay dying at the Toronto General Hospital , was given the first injection of insulin.
Over the next 12 days, Collip worked day and night to improve the ox-pancreas extract. A second dose was injected on January 23, eliminating the glycosuria that was typical of diabetes without causing any obvious side-effects. The first American patient was Elizabeth Hughes , the daughter of U.
Secretary of State Charles Evans Hughes. was future woodcut artist James D. Havens ; [] John Ralston Williams imported insulin from Toronto to Rochester, New York , to treat Havens.
Banting and Best never worked well with Collip, regarding him as something of an interloper, [ citation needed ] and Collip left the project soon after. Over the spring of , Best managed to improve his techniques to the point where large quantities of insulin could be extracted on demand, but the preparation remained impure.
The drug firm Eli Lilly and Company had offered assistance not long after the first publications in , and they took Lilly up on the offer in April. In November, Lilly's head chemist, George B. Walden discovered isoelectric precipitation and was able to produce large quantities of highly refined insulin.
Shortly thereafter, insulin was offered for sale to the general public. Toward the end of January , tensions mounted between the four "co-discoverers" of insulin and Collip briefly threatened to separately patent his purification process.
John G. FitzGerald , director of the non-commercial public health institution Connaught Laboratories , therefore stepped in as peacemaker. The resulting agreement of 25 January established two key conditions: 1 that the collaborators would sign a contract agreeing not to take out a patent with a commercial pharmaceutical firm during an initial working period with Connaught; and 2 that no changes in research policy would be allowed unless first discussed among FitzGerald and the four collaborators.
Initially, Macleod and Banting were particularly reluctant to patent their process for insulin on grounds of medical ethics. However, concerns remained that a private third-party would hijack and monopolize the research as Eli Lilly and Company had hinted [] , and that safe distribution would be difficult to guarantee without capacity for quality control.
To this end, Edward Calvin Kendall gave valuable advice. He had isolated thyroxin at the Mayo Clinic in and patented the process through an arrangement between himself, the brothers Mayo, and the University of Minnesota , transferring the patent to the public university.
The patent would not be used for any other purpose than to prevent the taking out of a patent by other persons. When the details of the method of preparation are published anyone would be free to prepare the extract, but no one could secure a profitable monopoly. Following further concern regarding Eli Lilly's attempts to separately patent parts of the manufacturing process, Connaught's Assistant Director and Head of the Insulin Division Robert Defries established a patent pooling policy which would require producers to freely share any improvements to the manufacturing process without compromising affordability.
Purified animal-sourced insulin was initially the only type of insulin available for experiments and diabetics. John Jacob Abel was the first to produce the crystallised form in Doisy , and Philip A.
Shaffer in Evans Jr. isolated the amino acids phenylalanine and proline in The amino acid structure of insulin was first characterized in by Frederick Sanger , [18] [] and the first synthetic insulin was produced simultaneously in the labs of Panayotis Katsoyannis at the University of Pittsburgh and Helmut Zahn at RWTH Aachen University in the mids.
Hans E. Weber discovered preproinsulin while working as a research fellow at the University of California Los Angeles in In —, Weber learned the techniques of how to isolate, purify, and translate messenger RNA.
To further investigate insulin, he obtained pancreatic tissues from a slaughterhouse in Los Angeles and then later from animal stock at UCLA.
He isolated and purified total messenger RNA from pancreatic islet cells which was then translated in oocytes from Xenopus laevis and precipitated using anti-insulin antibodies. When total translated protein was run on an SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and sucrose gradient, peaks corresponding to insulin and proinsulin were isolated.
However, to the surprise of Weber a third peak was isolated corresponding to a molecule larger than proinsulin. After reproducing the experiment several times, he consistently noted this large peak prior to proinsulin that he determined must be a larger precursor molecule upstream of proinsulin.
In May , at the American Diabetes Association meeting in New York, Weber gave an oral presentation of his work [] where he was the first to name this precursor molecule "preproinsulin". Following this oral presentation, Weber was invited to dinner to discuss his paper and findings by Donald Steiner , a researcher who contributed to the characterization of proinsulin.
A year later in April , this molecule was further characterized and sequenced by Steiner, referencing the work and discovery of Hans Weber.
The first genetically engineered, synthetic "human" insulin was produced using E. coli in by Arthur Riggs and Keiichi Itakura at the Beckman Research Institute of the City of Hope in collaboration with Herbert Boyer at Genentech.
Recombinant insulin is produced either in yeast usually Saccharomyces cerevisiae or E. A chemically synthesized C-terminal tail is then grafted onto insulin by reverse proteolysis using the inexpensive protease trypsin; typically the lysine on the C-terminal tail is protected with a chemical protecting group to prevent proteolysis.
The ease of modular synthesis and the relative safety of modifications in that region accounts for common insulin analogs with C-terminal modifications e. lispro, aspart, glulisine.
The Genentech synthesis and completely chemical synthesis such as that by Bruce Merrifield are not preferred because the efficiency of recombining the two insulin chains is low, primarily due to competition with the precipitation of insulin B chain.
The Nobel Prize committee in credited the practical extraction of insulin to a team at the University of Toronto and awarded the Nobel Prize to two men: Frederick Banting and John Macleod. Banting, incensed that Best was not mentioned, [] shared his prize with him, and Macleod immediately shared his with James Collip.
The patent for insulin was sold to the University of Toronto for one dollar. Two other Nobel Prizes have been awarded for work on insulin.
British molecular biologist Frederick Sanger , who determined the primary structure of insulin in , was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. Several Nobel Prizes also have an indirect connection with insulin. George Minot , co-recipient of the Nobel Prize for the development of the first effective treatment for pernicious anemia , had diabetes mellitus.
William Castle observed that the discovery of insulin, arriving in time to keep Minot alive, was therefore also responsible for the discovery of a cure for pernicious anemia. The work published by Banting, Best, Collip and Macleod represented the preparation of purified insulin extract suitable for use on human patients.
Ian Murray was particularly active in working to correct "the historical wrong" against Nicolae Paulescu. Murray was a professor of physiology at the Anderson College of Medicine in Glasgow , Scotland , the head of the department of Metabolic Diseases at a leading Glasgow hospital, vice-president of the British Association of Diabetes, and a founding member of the International Diabetes Federation.
Murray wrote:. Insufficient recognition has been given to Paulescu, the distinguished Romanian scientist, who at the time when the Toronto team were commencing their research had already succeeded in extracting the antidiabetic hormone of the pancreas and proving its efficacy in reducing the hyperglycaemia in diabetic dogs.
In a private communication, Arne Tiselius , former head of the Nobel Institute, expressed his personal opinion that Paulescu was equally worthy of the award in Contents move to sidebar hide.
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Download as PDF Printable version. In other projects. Wikimedia Commons. Peptide hormone. This article is about the naturally occurring protein. For uses of insulin in treating diabetes, see Insulin medication. Not to be confused with Inulin. beta cell body of pancreas right lobe of liver right adrenal gland left adrenal gland left uterine tube right coronary artery canal of the cervix fundus substantia nigra.
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insulin receptor binding identical protein binding protease binding insulin-like growth factor receptor binding protein binding hormone activity. endoplasmic reticulum lumen transport vesicle Golgi membrane secretory granule lumen Golgi lumen endoplasmic reticulum-Golgi intermediate compartment membrane endosome lumen extracellular region extracellular space.
See also: Blood glucose regulation. Main article: Insulin oscillations. Further information: Insulin index. Main article: Hypoglycemia. Main article: Insulin medication. Richardson diagram of a porcine insulin monomer, showing its characteristic secondary structure.
This is the biologically active form of insulin. Richardson diagram of a porcine insulin hexamer. The sphere at the center is a stabilizing zinc atom, surrounded by coordinating histidine residues. This is the form in which insulin is stored in beta cells. National Center for Biotechnology Information, U.
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Elizabeth Mann 1 Prromoting, Muna Sunni Pfomotingand Melena D. Bellin Staedy. The Promoting steady insulin release rwlease a complex releasse active in digestion releasw metabolism through secretion of digestive enzymes from the exocrine portion and hormones from the endocrine portion. The existence of islets was described by Paul Langerhans inand the functional role of islets in glucose homeostasis was first demonstrated in when Joseph von Mering and colleagues showed that dogs developed diabetes mellitus following pancreatectomy Though islet mass may vary between individuals—an example is the increase in the setting of adult obesity 83 — the average adult human pancreas is estimated to contain one to two million islets 33, Prommoting types Promoing insulin are used to treat Sustainable vegetable farming. Although Promoting steady insulin release Primoting may seem a bit Promoting steady insulin release at first, this guide can help you discuss your treatment with your doctor. Some people with type 2 diabetes will also need to take insulin. For more information about types of insulin and when to take them, talk to your doctor or diabetes educator. Skip directly to site content Skip directly to search. Español Other Languages. Types of Insulin.
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