Micronutrient deficiency and immune function -
Micronutrients, often referred to as vitamins and minerals, are vital to healthy development, disease prevention, and wellbeing. With the exception of vitamin D, micronutrients are not produced in the body and must be derived from the diet 1. Though people only need small amounts of micronutrients, consuming the recommended amount is important.
Micronutrient deficiencies can have devastating consequences. At least half of children worldwide younger than 5 years of age suffer from vitamin and mineral deficiencies 2. The World Health Organization recommends multiple types of interventions to address nutrition deficiencies external icon 3.
Iron Fact Sheet external icon Hierro Hoja Informativa external icon. Vitamin A Fact Sheet external icon Vitamina A Hoja Informativa external icon. Vitamin D Fact Sheet external icon Vitamina D Hoja Informativa external icon. Iodine Fact Sheet external icon Yodo Hoja Informativa external icon. Folate Fact Sheet external icon Folato Hoja Informativa external icon.
Zinc Fact Sheet external icon Zinc Hoja Informativa external icon. Skip directly to site content Skip directly to page options Skip directly to A-Z link. Section Navigation. Facebook Twitter LinkedIn Syndicate.
Micronutrient Facts. Minus Related Pages. The role of six essential micronutrients is outlined below. On This Page. Iron Vitamin A Vitamin D Iodine Folate Zinc References. Iron Iron is critical for motor and cognitive development. Children and pregnant women are especially vulnerable to the consequences of iron deficiency 3.
Iron deficiency is a leading cause of anemia which is defined as low hemoglobin concentration. Anemia during pregnancy increases the risk of death for the mother and low birth weight for the infant. Worldwide, maternal and neonatal deaths total between 2.
Babies fed only breast milk, only formula, or a mix of breast milk and formula have different needs when it comes to iron. Preventing iron deficiency helps improve children's learning ability and cognitive development.
Vitamin A Vitamin A supports healthy eyesight and immune system functions. Children with vitamin A deficiency face an increased risk of blindness and death from infections such as measles and diarrhea 6.
Globally, vitamin A deficiency affects an estimated million preschool-age children 6. Providing vitamin A supplements to children ages months is highly effective in reducing deaths from all causes where vitamin A deficiency is a public health concern 6.
Vitamin D Vitamin D builds strong bones by helping the body absorb calcium 7. This helps protect older adults from osteoporosis. Vitamin D deficiency causes bone diseases, including rickets in children and osteomalacia in adults 7. Vitamin D helps the immune system resist bacteria and virsues 7.
Vitamin D is required for muscle and nerve functions 7. Available data suggest that vitamin D deficiency may be widespread globally 8. Bodies make vitamin D from sunlight, but this varies based on geography, skin color, air pollution, and other factors.
Also, sunlight exposure needs to be limited to avoid risk of skin cancer. All children need vitamin D beginning shortly after birth. Globally an estimated 1.
Iodine content in most foods and beverages is low. The amount of iodine added to salt can be adjusted so that people maintain adequate iodine intake even if they consume less salt The American Thyroid Association and the American Academy of Pediatrics recommend that pregnant or breastfeeding women take a supplement every day containing micrograms of iodine.
The American Thyroid Association recommends women who are planning a pregnancy consume a daily iodine supplement starting at least 3 months in advance of pregnancy. Fortifying salt with iodine successfully increases intake of iodine.
Folate Everyone needs folate vitamin B9 to make new cells every day. Folate is essential in the earliest days of fetal growth for healthy development of the brain and spine Folic acid is another form of vitamin B9. Women of reproductive age need micrograms of folic acid every day Ensuring sufficient levels of folate in women prior to conception can reduce neural tube defects such as spina bifida and anencephaly Providing folic acid supplements to women years and fortifying foods such as wheat flour with folic acid reduces the incidence of neural tube defects and neonatal deaths Folate is especially important before and during pregnancy.
Zinc Zinc promotes immune functions and helps people resist infectious diseases including diarrhea, pneumonia and malaria 14,15, Zinc is also needed for healthy pregnancies Globally, Providing zinc supplements reduces the incidence of premature birth, decreases childhood diarrhea and respiratory infections, lowers the number of deaths from all causes, and increases growth and weight gain among infants and young children Providing zinc supplementation to children younger than 5 years appears to be a highly cost-effective intervention in low- and middle-income countries 18, When children are about 6 months old, it is important to start giving them foods with zinc.
References Kraemer K, , Badham J, Christian P, Hyun Rah J, eds. Micronutrients; macro impact, the story of vitamins and a hungry world external icon. Sight and Life Press; Micronutrients with the strongest evidence for immune support are vitamins C and D and zinc.
Better design of human clinical studies addressing dosage and combinations of micronutrients in different populations are required to substantiate the benefits of micronutrient supplementation against infection. Keywords: immune system; infection; micronutrients; minerals; vitamins. Abstract Immune support by micronutrients is historically based on vitamin C deficiency and supplementation in scurvy in early times.
Publication types Review. Substances Micronutrients.
One fubction the Functikn valuable things you have is your health. As a Joint health solutions, I have received Joint health solutions queries about recommended foods, supplements and Micronutrietn patterns to Micromutrient immune mimune. While it is true that nutrition plays a large role in immune Immunity wellness tips, diet recommendations for the prevention of acute illnesses, like COVID and other viruses, don't look a whole lot different than general guidelines for healthy eating. I'll start by saying that the concept of boosting the immune system through diet is flawed, as boosting refers to something that is stimulated above the normal level. A good diet cannot boost the immune system, but it's important to maintain a functional immune system by avoiding immunodeficiency due to malnutrition or micronutrient deficiencies. It's important to note that no single food or nutrient will prevent illness.Micronutrient deficiency and immune function -
High plasma dephosphorylated uncarboxylated matrix Gla-protein dp-ucMGP concentrations reflect a low vitamin K status and dp-ucMGP is a biomarker of functional vitamin K status.
Fiber elastic degradation degradation is associated with increased proteolytic activity in the lungs of patients with SARS-CoV-2, may lead to up-regulation of vitamin K-dependent MGP synthesis and extrahepatic depletion of vitamin K stores.
Impairment of circulatory activation of MGP degrades the elasticity of the fibers and increases the circulating level of dp-ucMGP. Degradation of lung elastic fibers in patients with SARS-CoV-2 is associated with pneumonia, COPD, cystic fibrosis, and bronchiectasis 55 — The level of decreased serum level of vitamin K in patients with SARS-CoV-2 is associated with a poor prognosis 59 , Vitamin C as an antioxidant eliminates reactive oxygen species ROS and protects biomolecules such as proteins, lipids, and nucleotides from oxidative and functional damage Other functions of vitamin C include iron absorption and support of the immune system Furthermore, vitamin C has positive effects on the symptoms and duration of respiratory infections, duration of viral infections, and prevents pneumonia 63 — Inhibition of PAF formation by vitamin C was reported in a previous study on cardiovascular disease PAF may contribute to cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury by increasing the generation of oxygen radicals Furthermore, vitamin C reduces oxidative stress 68 , which is a strong trigger for synthesis of PAF 69 , and its receptor Vitamin C status may thus affect the inflammatory and micro-thrombotic status through medulation of PAF level In SARS-CoV-2, pro-inflammatory cytokines, IL-1β and TNF-α, increased rapidly after infection and cause more secretion of IL-6 and IL-8, which promotes the pro-inflammatory condition.
Vitamin C has been suggested to combat against cytokine storm during SARS-CoV-2 infections. Vitamin C reduces the levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines, including TNF-α, and increases the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL IL has an anti-inflammatory effect and controls inflammation in SARS-CoV-2 by decreasing IL-6 Vitamin C prevents excessive inflammatory activity in lymphoid and myeloid cells and high doses of vitamin C act as a pro-oxidant for immune cells and an antioxidant for pulmonary epithelial cells.
In humans, vitamin C supplementation improves the immune system and reduces the severity and duration of infectious diseases 71 , Studies have shown that vitamin C supplementation may control respiratory tract infections and reduces the mortality of patients with infectious diseases However, there is no evidence at this time point to support intravenous high-dose vitamin C in the management of COVID Vitamin C mg once daily had no effect on disease progression in mild — to — moderate patient with COVID B vitamins regulate inflammatory response and intestinal immunity and play an important role in proliferation and evolution of lymphocytes, which are an important part of the primary immune response 30 , This vitamin is a coenzyme for the metabolism of carbohydrates and different types of amino acids and is also involved in energy metabolism Thiamine deficiency affects the immune system, enhancing the inflammation of the nerves and increasing the inflammatory and antibody responses.
Thiamine deficiency causes inadequate antibody responses and worsens the symptoms. Administration of high-dose vitamin B1 in the early stages of SARS-CoV-2 disease was reported to reduce hospitalization and hypoxia symptoms 61 , 81 , Vitamin B2 is responsible for releasing energy from macronutrients, the conversion of pyridoxine B6 to pyridoxal phosphate, and the biosynthesis of vitamin B3 from tryptophan Riboflavin and UV rays have been reported to be effective against MERS-COV and possibly against SARS-CoV-2 83 , Nicotinamide mainly acts as a component of two coenzymes, namely nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide NAD and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate NADP.
NAD and NADP coenzymes are involved in the metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and alcohol Vitamin B6 helps in the synthesis, catabolism, and transport of amino acids and the conversion of essential amino acids to other amino acids.
Vitamin B6 has a protective role in cellular immunity 24 , Vitamin B6 up-regulates interleukin and immunosuppressive cytokines, inactivates macrophages and monocytes, inhibits antigen-expressing cells and T cells, and decrease the inflammatory effect of IL-6 and TNF-α Vitamin B6 deficiency causes the atrophy of the spleen and thymus, a decrease in the number of T lymphocytes, impairment of lymphocyte proliferation, and a reduction in the T lymphocyte-mediated immune response Patients with SARS-CoV-2 often respond to the virus by increased T cell responses and secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines.
Pyridoxal phosphate supplements reduce the symptoms of SARS-CoV-2 by regulating the immune response, reducing pro-inflammatory cytokines, strengthening endothelium, and preventing blood clotting Folic acid is an essential vitamin for DNA synthesis and may improve the adaptive immune response Folic acid deficiency in animals causes the atrophy of the spleen and thymus and reduces the number of circulating T lymphocytes Folic acid has been recently shown to inhibit the function of furin an enzyme associated with viral and bacterial infections through binding to the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein.
Furthermore, Folic acid may prevent virus entry into the cell and can be useful in the early stages of SARS-CoV-2 The coronavirus polypeptide encodes two proteases, 3-C-like protease M-pro and Papain-like protease PL-pro , both of which are targets for drug detection in SARS and MERS coronavirus.
Folic acid has a strong potential to form hydrogen bonds with the active sites of M-pro in SARS-CoV-2 and therefore be a possible therapeutic strategy Vitamin B12 is a stimulator for the formation of red blood cells, synthesis of nucleic acids and nucleoproteins, and metabolism of nerve tissue Vitamins B12 and B6 and folic acid affect the activity of NK, cytotoxicity of T lymphocytes, and fight against viruses Vitamin B12 deficiency is associated with increased oxidative stress, lactate dehydrogenase, blood coagulation activation, and vascular contractions One study found that methylcobalamin supplementation reduced tissue damage and SARS-CoVrelated symptoms In another study, patients with SARS-CoV-2 who received vitamin B12 μg , vitamin D IU , and magnesium mg supplements had reduced symptoms, disease severity, and need for oxygen Zinc is a cofactor of more than different enzymes and plays an important role in the immune system There are several studies on the role of zinc in several biological processes including the provision and development of cellular immunity and generating innate and acquired immune responses to viral infections 84 , 90 , As an antioxidant, zinc protects the body against viral and bacterial infections.
In vitro studies have shown that zinc deficiency alters the function of inhibitory cells in pulmonary epithelial tissues through the up-regulation of IFN-γ and TNF-α.
Zinc deficiency also reduces the number of lymphocytes and impairs their function, while supplementation of zinc increases the number of T and NK cells, and IL Zinc deficiency impairs the immune function, especially the humoral and cellular immune function, and spreads infectious diseases.
Furthermore, zinc deficiency increases the production of pro-inflammatory and inflammatory cytokines, causes impairment of immunity, reduced B lymphocyte count, and lower antibody production.
The role of zinc in the prevention of respiratory infectious diseases is also important 30 , 61 , 92 , Recent studies have shown that increased intracellular zinc concentrations inhibit the function of RNA polymerase, which is required for virus RNA replication, and promote adaptive immunity 30 , A low zinc diet reduces platelet aggregation suggesting a role of zinc in hemostasis Zinc and copper chelate complexes are reported to have a PAF inhibitory activity mainly attributed to stereo chemical interactions Recent meta-analyses have shown that zinc reduces mortality in acute pneumonia and inhibits of replication SARS-CoV Zinc also prevents SARS-CoV-2 synthesis, replication, and transcription 30 , 96 — One study found that serum zinc concentrations in patients with SARS-CoV-2 were lower than in healthy individuals Recent research indicated that zinc supplementation for 11 days on average improved oxygen saturation The combination of doxycycline and zinc had a protective effect in patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection High doses of zinc gluconate, ascorbic acid, or a combination of zinc gluconate and ascorbic acid did not significantly shorten the duration of symptoms associated with the virus compared with the control group Magnesium is considered a cofactor of more than enzymes and is involved in energy metabolism, protein synthesis, immunity, and metabolism 24 , Magnesium deficiency reduces the activity of immune cells and increases cytokine storm in patients with SARS-CoV-2 One study found that magnesium deficiency decreased lung function Magnesium has some effects on pulmonary dilation and release of acetylcholine and histamine which can lead to anti-inflammatory effects 81 , , Copper plays an important role in respiration, immune function, and defense against free radicals in human body.
Copper is also required as the enzyme Cu-Zn superoxide dismutase for immunological responses against infection and oxidative phosphorylation. Copper supports the function of neutrophils, monocytes, macrophages, and NK cell activity.
Human studies have shown that people with low dietary copper intake have reduced lymphocyte proliferation and IL-2 production Copper has antiviral properties, such as inactivation of DNA or RNA virus, destruction of the virus genome, and blockage of proteases Moreover, copper plays an important role in the regulation of IL2, which plays an important role in the proliferation of T-helpers and the balance between Th1 and Th2, and the cytotoxicity of NK cells , , , Selenium acts as a cofactor for the glutathione peroxidase GP enzymatic complex which acts as an antioxidant Selenium is a key element in the immune system and lowers the level of cytotoxicity and inflammation in lung tissues in viral infections Free selenium in serum has a significantly positive effect on the pathogenicity of viral infections.
Selenium may help alter the genetic expression pattern of the virus Low concentrations of selenium in humans are associated with decreased NK cell activity and increased mycobacterium disease. Selenium deficiency increases mutations in viruses — Dietary selenium deficiency causes oxidative stress in the host and under oxidative stress conditions, changes the viral genome from normal to pathogenic, causing mutations in the virus genome, and virus transformation.
Selenium deficiency not only disrupts the immune system, but also leads to rapid mutations in the RNA virus Furthermore, selenium deficiency caused increased PLD activity and PA production which led to enhanced Lyso-PAF-AcT activity and an overall increase in PAF production.
The regulation of Lyso-PAF-AcT activity by Selenium may constitute an important control mechanism for the maintenance of PAF levels in endothelial cells Selenium has a special role in blocking the ACE2 receptors and this mechanism plays an important role against SARS-CoV A potential benefit from improved selenium intake was reported among individuals consuming a low-selenium diet to mitigate COVID severity However, a recent study recommended against high-dose of selenium supplementation and only support vitamin supplementation that compensate selenium deficiency The worse outcomes of SARS-CoV-2 on the grounds of selenium deficiency may be at least in part attributed to increased PAF, an associated pro-thrombotic state, reducing NK cell activity, and increased mutations in the RNA virus.
Iron is also a component of myoglobin, transferrin, and oxidative enzymes. Iron is very important for preventing nutritional anemia and plays a major role in respiration and developing immunity Iron deficiency reduced T lymphocyte production and caused respiratory infections and affected function cellular immune.
Iron can help to the production of hydroxyl radicals, which help neutrophils kill viruses and bacteria. Of course, microorganisms grow to need iron 46 , For patients with SARS-CoV-2 who are iron deficient, the length of hospitalization is longer than the others However, higher doses of iron lead to oxidative stress, impaired immune function, and inflammatory lesions and provide a favorable environment for viral mutations.
There is no proven dietary recommendation to prevent coronavirus. However, since the host metabolic status influences the progression of the disease, a healthy balanced diet should be followed. A healthy diet as promoted by international bodies ensures the provision of micronutrients such as vitamins A, C, D, E, and B complex, selenium, iron, zinc, copper, which play a role in the immune system through modulation of PAF action and metabolism, is strongly recommended A high-quality dietary pattern is associated with reduced risk of COVID infection and hospitalization rates , A healthy diet containing PAF inhibitors may target both inflammation and thrombosis and prevent the deleterious effects of COVID 74 , A diet rich in micronutrients is highly advised to prevent deficiencies.
However, supplementation of high doses of micronutrients above the RDAs is not yet supported Exposure to contaminants, malnutrition, and other factors affect the immune system.
Some micronutrients improve the function of the immune system to protect against many diseases such as SARS-CoV-2 It is necessary to consume enough micronutrients through healthy diet which play an important role in strengthening the immune system.
Understanding the supporting roles of micronutrients in immune system can play an important role in the prevention of infection to SARS-CoV-2 and so the management of patients with SARS-CoV The present study highlights the importance of promoting healthy diet and micronutrients as a therapy, coupled with pharmacological treatment for the prevention, severity reduction, and boost recovery from SARS-CoV-2 and the post- SARS-CoV-2 syndrome.
A healthy diet may target both inflammation and thrombosis and prevent the deleterious effects of SARS-CoV Future RCT studies are warranted to identify the effects of a healthy diet and micronutrients on improving the status of patients with SARS-CoV-2 Table 1.
Table 1. The characteristics of randomized clinical trials on the effects of micronutrients against SARS-CoV All authors designed the study, involved in the data collection, analysis, drafting of the manuscript, design of the study, and analysis of the data, critically reviewed the manuscript, and read and approved the final manuscript.
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers.
Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.
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Morse C, Tabib T, Sembrat J, Buschur KL, Bittar HT, Valenzi E, et al. Micronutrients, also called vitamins and minerals, are key to helping fetuses, infants, and children grow and thrive.
Facts about six essential nutrients are outlined here. Iron helps develop the brain of a fetus and child. Iron deficiency is a leading cause of anemia. Severe anemia during pregnancy can result in poor fetal growth, preterm birth, or low birth weight. Anemia during pregnancy also increases the risk of death for both the mother and baby.
In addition, iron deficiency limits physical productivity and work capacity. See more. Folate is a general term for many different forms of vitamin B9, which is essential in the earliest days of fetal growth.
Folic acid, the form of folate found in supplements and fortified foods, is the only form shown to prevent serious birth defects of the brain, spinal cord, and skull. These birth defects are often preventable if women get enough folic acid before and during early pregnancy.
Vitamin A supports healthy eyesight and immune system functions. Children who are deficient face an increased risk of blindness and death from infections such as measles and diarrhea.
Iodine is also required during pregnancy and early infancy for brain and cognitive development. Iodine deficiency can lead to developmental delays and is the most common cause of preventable mental retardation. Zinc promotes immunity, resistance to infection, and proper growth and development of the nervous system.
This mineral is also important for healthy pregnancies. Vitamin D is essential for bone health as well as muscle and nerve functions. Vitamin D also helps the immune system fight off bacteria and viruses. Skip directly to site content Skip directly to page options Skip directly to A-Z link.
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Micronutrient Refreshing hydration drinks can have devastating consequences. Micronutrients, also Probiotic pills fumction and minerals, are key to fubction fetuses, Mlcronutrient, and children grow funcion Probiotic pills. Facts about six essential nutrients are outlined here. Iron helps develop the brain of a fetus and child. Iron deficiency is a leading cause of anemia. Severe anemia during pregnancy can result in poor fetal growth, preterm birth, or low birth weight. Anemia during pregnancy also increases the risk of death for both the mother and baby. Micronutrients, often referred to as vitamins and functioon, are vital Energy-boosting supplements for busy professionals healthy development, disease prevention, and wellbeing. With the exception of vitamin D, Joint health solutions are Micronutrient deficiency and immune function Micronutrrient in the body and Micronutrint be derived from the diet 1. Though people only need small amounts of micronutrients, consuming the recommended amount is important. Micronutrient deficiencies can have devastating consequences. At least half of children worldwide younger than 5 years of age suffer from vitamin and mineral deficiencies 2. The World Health Organization recommends multiple types of interventions to address nutrition deficiencies external icon 3. Iron Fact Sheet external icon Hierro Hoja Informativa external icon.
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