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Participants in condition A fivefold overestimation of prevalence; Franke et al. The descriptive facet of this PWM variable was captured using three statements see Hammer and Vogel, to which participants responded using a six-point, i.

Higher values represented a more positive attitude toward use of caffeine pills for NE. The mean score from these five items was used for statistical analyses. Participants were asked to imagine what a typical user of caffeine pills — perhaps a fellow student from their university — might be like see Gibbons et al.

Participants were asked to read two hypothetical scenarios and rate their willingness to use NE in each see Gibbons et al.

You have the option of taking caffeine pills to dispel your fatigue and thus revise more effectively. Participants were asked to provide their age and gender, and state whether they were currently enrolled as a university student.

Participants were also asked whether they thought there was anything suspicious, wrong, or strange about the questionnaire, and in particular if they thought they had been manipulated by the ways in which we gave or asked for information earlier in the questionnaire.

The last page of the questionnaire provided full information about the goals and procedure for the study. This included a statement of the actual estimated prevalence of use of caffeine pills for NE among university students i. Participants had to tick response boxes to indicate that they had read and understood this information and consented to the confidential storage and analysis of their data for scientific use by the Division of Sport and Exercise Psychology of the University of Potsdam.

SPSS Structural equation modeling SEM with Amos A SEM multigroup moderation approach Byrne, was used to investigate experimentally induced alterations in the relative predictive power of PWM predictors of willingness and intention Lowry and Gaskin, These tests were carried out with a program created by Gaskin which calculates z -scores based on critical ratio tests of the multigroup model and unstandardized estimates.

Information from the second question of the manipulation check was evaluated qualitatively. Previous research suggests that male and female students may differ in their use of caffeine for NE Franke et al.

We therefore concluded that in spite of the randomization error under-representation of men in condition B the randomization process was successful overall. The group mean responses to the question about what percentage of university students in Germany used caffeine pills for NE on at least one occasion were as follows: group A fivefold overestimate of prevalence, i.

This finding is illustrated in Figure 1. Thirty-one participants Descriptive statistics for all variables are summarized in Table 1.

The low variance inflation factor of 1. The structural model with regression weights for relationships between variables bootstrapped CI s in Table 2 and determination coefficients for variables is displayed in Figure 2A.

TABLE 2. FIGURE 2. The Prototype Willingness Model Gibbons et al. for paths and the illustration of experimental effects B. We therefore concluded that provision of experimentally manipulated information about peer behavior did not produce group mean differences in any of the investigated variables.

This means that in our sample provision of information about prevalence of use of caffeine pills for NE decreased the predictive value of attitude to use of caffeine for NE on willingness to do so. Testing predictions derived from a theory of behavior minimizes the risk of reporting random effects and overestimating relationships; it is thus a suitable strategy for uncovering the psychological mechanisms underlying behavior and behavior change Zelli et al.

On the basis of this result and previous findings on the effects of peer pressure Sattler et al. Interestingly, in this investigation attitude was a much weaker predictor of intention than in other investigations of problematic consumption behavior e. The most likely explanation for this is that we chose to measure a very specific intention, i.

In particular, we recommend research into the conceptual relationship between willingness and intention empirical data from many studies based on the PWM suggest that the two constructs are fairly highly correlated, c.

Todd et al. We think that willingness to engage in a given behavior may be much more sensitive to changes in motivational predictors e. A fundamental assumption of the PWM is that willingness is the basis of socially reactive, i. Structural equation modeling modeling enabled us to estimate correlations between the PWM variable past behavior and the residual variance in willingness and intention with respect to the relevant behavior.

These unidentified variables have a considerable impact on willingness and intention to use specific neuroenhancers and perhaps NE more generally. Candidates for these thus far unidentified variables might be found in the psychological roots of NE behavior and perhaps in the goals at which NE is directed.

The PWM variable past behavior was linked to social norm and attitude but had almost no relationship with user prototype. In the terminology of the PWM the basis for socially reactive use of caffeine pills to improve academic performance seems to be the strong influence of attitude on willingness; user prototype appears to play little role in socially reactive NE in this instance.

This may be due to our choice of example neuroenhancer, namely caffeine pills. If we assume that university students are better educated than the general population we might expect them to be more resistant to social influences and generally less prone to unplanned, socially reactive behavior and hence that user prototype would be a stronger predictor of NE behavior in other samples and in relation to other substances.

We suggest that receiving new information about peer prevalence might weaken the association between attitude to a given behavior and willingness to engage in it. This finding reinforces our main contention, shared by other authors Wolff and Brand, ; Wolff et al.

The limitations of this research should be acknowledged. First of all, psychological theories such as the PWM are intended to predict behavior. We have neither predicted a temporal relationship e. We experimentally manipulated one variable information about prevalence and were thus able to make causal inferences related to this manipulation providing information about prevalence reduced the influence of attitude to NE on willingness to engage in it.

We are, however, unable to draw conclusions about the validity of theoretical assumptions about the causal relationships between other variables e. Longitudinal studies are needed to draw conclusions about the consequences of changes in motivational determinants. Another limitation of our study is that our analyses were based on data from an ad hoc sample of university students which may not have been representative of the population.

Although, we are optimistic that our findings are valid further studies are needed to corroborate our findings and interpretation.

We hope that future research will be theoretically informed, seeking to address research questions derived from and relevant to psychological theory. By taking this kind of approach we have shown that information about the prevalence of a behavior amongst peers — in this case use of NE to improve academic performance — might have a deterrent effect via attitude to NE and willingness to engage in NE.

The approach described in this study might be particularly useful for the designers of public health campaigns. RB developed this research question. HK conducted the empirical part of the study as a part of her bachelor thesis. RB and HK jointly re-analyzed the data, adjusted and broadened the chain of arguments, and then cooperatively wrote this report.

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. The reviewer Christopher Fullerton and handling Editor declared their shared affiliation, and the handling Editor states that the process nevertheless met the standards of a fair and objective review.

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Visit the Nootropics Depot Store. Search this page. Size: 60 Count Pack of 1. Purchase options and add-ons. Brand Nootropics Depot Flavor Unflavored Unit Count About this item FAST-ACTING ENERGY AND FOCUS - This powerful nootropic blend helps boost mental focus and alterness while also promoting wakefulness.

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