Effect performwnce creatine and weight training on Creafine creatine Creatine for enhancing brain performance performance enhanncing vegetarians. Br J Nutr. Neurochemical alterations in adolescent chronic marijuana smokers: a proton MRS study. We used the score after supplementation and not change from baseline, because subtracting the same baseline from both after-supplement scores in a crossover study would cancel out, which would give the same result but complicate the analysis unnecessarily.

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Creatine for enhancing brain performance -

In vitro, creatine elevates phosphocreatine and ATP levels 11 and increases oxidative phosphorylation in synaptosomes and isolated brain mitochondria.

As an example of the importance of creatine in humans, creatine-deficient syndromes that deplete brain creatine stores are characterized by mental and developmental disorders such as learning delays and seizures 17 , 18 ; importantly, these symptoms can be partially reversed by creatine supplementation.

Nevertheless, this might be attributable to the intake of lower-creatine vegetarian diets. Therefore, a systematic review and meta-analysis was performed to assess the effects of creatine supplementation vs placebo on memory performance in healthy humans.

This systematic review and meta-analysis was conducted in accordance with the PRISMA Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines. Two independent reviewers K. and P. searched PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and the Cochrane library from inception until September 30, A manual search of references cited in the selected articles and published reviews was also performed.

Discrepancies in the literature search process were resolved by a third investigator K. The following inclusion criteria were applied: 1 studies were randomized controlled trials RCTs ; 2 population comprised healthy participants; 3 intervention group received creatine supplementation; 4 control group received a placebo; and 5 memory performance outcomes were assessed.

Studies were excluded if they were not RCTs; if a full text was not available; if participants with self-reported comorbidities were included; or if participants with any specific dietary restrictions eg, vegetarians were included. Two authors K. extracted data independently.

Extracted data included name of first author; date of publication; study design; age, sex, and health status of participants, number of participants; outcomes measured; and form, dose, and duration of treatment. Disagreements between authors were resolved by a third reviewer K.

The quality of included studies was assessed using version 2 of the Cochrane risk-of-bias 2 tool for randomized trials RoB 2 and evaluated by 3 independent reviewers K.

Appraisal of risk of bias using the RoB 2 tool included the assessment of the following domains of bias in RCTs: 1 randomization process, 2 deviations from intended interventions, 3 missing outcome data, 4 measurement of the outcome, and 5 selection of the reported result.

In accordance with the RoB 2 tool scoring system, study quality was defined as low risk of bias, some concerns, or high risk of bias. Memory performance was considered the main outcome in the analysis and comprised multiple measures of memory from comparable studies, with no restrictions placed on the tool used for assessment.

The meta-analysis compared changes in memory performance in participants who received either creatine monohydrate or placebo. Quantitative data were treated as continuous measurements, and changes in outcomes from baseline to follow-up were compared between groups to calculate mean differences.

When units of measurements were inconsistent and could not be converted to units required to be included in the analysis or when different aspects of memory were measured as outcomes, standardized mean differences were used.

Statistical significance was assessed using the random-effects model and the inverse-variance method. Any changes between baseline and follow-up outcome measurements for which standard deviations were missing were estimated by calculating a correlation coefficient from a known change from the baseline standard deviation derived from a similar study.

Figure 1 shows the literature search process. The initial literature search yielded publications. After exclusion of duplicates, unique publications were identified. Following screening of titles and abstracts, publications with irrelevant study design were excluded and RCTs were retrieved. Further screening of abstracts of the remaining publications resulted in 23 eligible RCTs examining the effects of creatine supplementation on performance measures of memory.

Of these, 6 studies had ineligible outcomes and 7 had incompatible study populations. Ten studies were included in the systematic review 22 , 24 , 25 , 27 , 28 , 30 , 33—36 and 8 in the meta-analysis 25 , 27 , 28 , 30 , 33—36 ; 2 studies were excluded from the meta-analysis because they were missing baseline outcomes 24 or standard deviations of outcomes.

Of the 10 studies, 4 were conducted in the United Kingdom, 24 , 25 , 27 , 28 4 in Brazil, 22 , 33 , 35 , 36 1 in New Zealand, 30 and 1 in the United States. Abbreviations : BBCS, Brief Battery of Cognitive Screening; NA, not available; RAVLT, Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test.

Memory was evaluated through multiple assessment tools in the included studies. Definitions of measurements used to assess aspects of memory and composite memory through the Brief Battery of Cognitive Screening were not provided.

The Corsi block test, a variation of the Corsi block tapping test, was employed to assess memory recall and reproduction of block position sequences in a screen.

Subgroup analysis of the effect of creatine monohydrate supplementation on overall memory, based on A dose of creatine monohydrate, B age of individual, C duration of supplementation, and D sex of individual.

Risk of bias was scored as high in 6 RCTs because information about how randomization was applied was lacking. This is the first meta-analysis to examine the effectiveness of creatine supplementation on memory performance in healthy individuals.

Results showed that measures of memory following creatine supplementation, compared with placebo, were improved. However, a moderate risk of bias and significant heterogeneity between studies were observed, and therefore caution is warranted.

For example, creatine elevates phosphocreatine and ATP levels 11 and increases oxidative phosphorylation in synaptosomes and isolated brain mitochondria. Moreover, creatine supplementation has been shown to elevate brain creatine content and the ratio of phosphocreatine to ATP in humans.

These findings may be clinically important and further highlight the need for additional clinical research to determine the mechanistic actions of creatine in large cohorts of healthy older adults and those with neurological and neurodegenerative diseases in whom brain creatine levels and memory are compromised.

Although there are limited data exploring the effect of dose-response relationships of creatine on memory, the results suggest that the amount of either endogenous creatine synthesis or dietary creatine intake may be sufficient to maintain adequate brain creatine stores 45 and that a higher exogenous dose of creatine is not required, despite the limited ability of creatine to cross the blood-brain barrier.

As such, higher doses of creatine supplementation may not be required to optimize brain creatine content 4 , 5 and ATP re synthesis by mitochondrial creatine kinases. Another potential mediating factor is dietary intake of creatine. Future research is warranted to confirm these findings.

This is the first meta-analysis to examine the effects of creatine monohydrate supplementation on memory performance in healthy individuals and to determine whether quantifiable differences in exogenous supplementation based on dose, treatment duration, and age modulate measures of memory.

A limitation, however, is that the included studies did not assess baseline levels of serum or brain creatine. As such, it was not possible to determine whether non-responders had lower brain creatine levels than responders. Therefore, it remains inconclusive if the differential effects of creatine monohydrate supplementation between responders and non-responders are directly linked to discrepancies in baseline creatine levels or a metabolic dimorphism in any specific mechanism of creatine monohydrate.

There are also several methodological limitations, including the combination of various assessment tools designed to measure memory, which increases the heterogeneity of the data.

In particular, several memory tests were combined to increase the statistical power including short-term, long-term, and working memory. For example, backward number recall, which may require greater energy production than forward recall, may generate a stronger activation of the parietal, occipital, frontal, and temporal cortices, as shown in functional magnetic resonance imaging scans.

Additionally, some memory tasks required an initial learning phase that likely employs auxiliary aspects of cognition, such as attention. Thus, it is likely that a proportion of these tests may have exceeded a specific difficulty threshold. Furthermore, most of the included studies did not assess creatine intake from dietary consumption, which may have altered the findings.

The findings presented here should be interpreted with caution. The included studies were of moderate quality, according to the Cochrane RoB 2 tool.

This is likely attributable in part to the presence of confounders, the inherent heterogeneity between intervention and placebo groups, and the suboptimal selection of participants in the included studies.

Moreover, the high diversity between the memory assessment tools could also influence the accuracy and lead to uncertainty of the effect estimate.

Importantly, subgroup and sensitivity analyses in this study were not able to reduce this heterogeneity, especially since different memory outcomes were derived from the same populations in each study. Finally, it was not possible to assess publication bias, which could affect the quality of evidence, because the number of included studies was too low.

This systematic review and meta-analysis revealed that creatine monohydrate supplementation has a beneficial effect on memory performance in healthy individuals. Subgroup analysis showed the effects of creatine were more robust in older adults.

The lack of homogeneity in outcomes of memory performance illustrates an unmet demand for common assessment tools that could be used by both researchers and practitioners in the pursuit of results with higher precision and accuracy.

As such, future research utilizing a rigorous, large, long-term randomized clinical trial to elucidate the potential effect of creatine monohydrate supplementation on memory performance is urgently warranted.

Author contributions. Study concept and design: K. Acquisition of data: K. Analysis and interpretation of data: K. Statistical analysis: K. Drafting of the manuscript: K. Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content: S. and D.

Declaration of interest. has previously served as a scientific advisor for a company that sold creatine. has conducted industry-sponsored research involving creatine supplementation and has received creatine donations for scientific studies and travel support for presentations involving creatine supplementation at scientific conferences.

In addition, D. serves on the Scientific Advisory Board for AlzChem a company that manufactures creatine. All other authors have no relevant interests to declare.

Data availability statement. Figure S1 Sensitivity analysis of the effect of creatine monohydrate supplementation on memory performance, based on A form of creatine, B stress status, and C rate of loss during follow-up. See Appendix S2 for references. Figure S2 Quality assessment of the included studies, according to the revised Cochrane risk-of-bias tool for randomized trials RoB 2.

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Some results have been promising, including higher phosphocreatine levels in the brain and signs of enhanced communication between brain cells. Women with major depressive disorder and individuals with bipolar disorder, however, did experience improvements in some symptoms after adding creatine to their prescription treatments.

More research is needed to confirm these early studies and determine the most effective creatine dosing regimen. Creatine is a common supplement that can be found as a standalone product or in combination with other ingredients that may also support performance, such as pre-workouts or mass gainer powders.

Though it comes in multiple forms with varying levels of solubility, creatine monohydrate is generally considered to be the most effective option. Starting with a higher dose called a loading phase could help you maximize your creatine stores about a month faster, but large amounts of creatine monohydrate might cause some intermittent gastrointestinal distress.

You can take it first thing in the morning, as part of your pre-workout meal , or right before bed if you like. From nootropics to meditation, the fitness industry is constantly prowling for the next big brain thing.

Lifting weights can certainly do a lot for your mental acumen and peace of mind, but as it turns out, good old fashioned creatine might be of some use there as well. Merege-Filho, C. Does brain creatine content rely on exogenous creatine in healthy youth? A proof-of-principle study.

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