Maximized fat oxidizing mechanisms -
They are important for the flavor and aroma profile of meats and contribute to tenderness and juiciness. Mechanism of lipid peroxidation in meat and meat products - a review.
Food Science and Biotechnology, 14 1 , Lipid oxidation affects color, texture, nutritional value, taste, and aroma leading to rancidity, wish is responsible for off-flavors and unacceptable taste, which are important reasons for consumer rejection Lima et al.
Oxidação lipídica da carne ovina. Acta Veterinaria Brasilica, 7 1 , Warmed-over flavour in porcine meat - a combined spectroscopic, sensory and chemometric study. Meat Science, 54 1 , The development of oxidative rancidity in meat begins at the time of slaughter, when blood flow is interrupted, and the metabolic processes are blocked Lima et al.
It is a rather complex process in which unsaturated fatty acids react with molecular oxygen via free radical chain-forming peroxides. Oxidation begins with phospholipids and is catalyzed by heme proteins, such as hemoglobin and myoglobin, cytochromes, free iron, enzymes, and sodium chloride. Phospholipids are found in cell membranes and are rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids; therefore, these are very susceptible to oxidation Brøndum et al.
The nature and relative proportions of compounds formed by lipid oxidation depend on the characteristic lipid composition of the slaughtered animal, and they also depend on many other factors such as processing methods, storage conditions, types of ingredients, and presence and concentrations of pro- or antioxidants.
A matter that deserves close attention is related to pre-prepared products. Cooked meats are even more susceptible to lipid oxidation than raw meat Byrne et al.
Sensory and chemical investigations on the effect of oven cooking on warmed-over flavour development in chicken meat. Meat Science, 61 2 , because higher temperatures lead to the release of oxygen and heme, iron, thereby, inducing production of free radicals.
Thus, there is undesirable development of off-odors and off-flavors, which usually become apparent within 48 h at 4 °C. These flavors become particularly noticeable after reheating the meat and are referred to as WOF warmed-over flavor Byrne et al.
Consumer preference, behavior and perception about meat and meat products: An overview. Meat Science, 98 3 , Aiming at offering products with desirable characteristics and stability, some technologies have been developed seeking to reduce lipid oxidation and to increase shelf-life of these products, such as vacuum packaging, modified atmosphere, and use of antioxidants.
Natural products of animal origin are currently receiving more attention, since the addition of substances such as butylated hydroxytoluene BHT , butylated hydroxyanisole BHA , and tert-butylhydroquinone TBHQ in food products is strictly limited.
Antioxidants can be added directly into the product or can be added to the animal feed Lima et al. Considering the large number of potential protective factors against lipid oxidation, this review aims to analyze and discuss possible strategies to control and minimize lipid oxidation in meat and meat products.
The objectives of this review were to display the lipid oxidation mechanisms responsible for sensory and nutritional quality reduction in meat and meat products and to identify the most effective methods to control this process.
Meat and meat products are good sources of protein with high biological value, fat-soluble vitamins, minerals, and bioactive compounds. Meat products result from various methods of processing of fresh meat, aiming to develop desirable products and to reduce perishability during transport and storage.
Meat and meat products are complex systems of rich nutritional composition, which makes them very susceptible to chemical and bacterial spoilage. Lipid oxidation is the major cause of chemical deterioration in meat, and it probably starts in the muscles of the living animal and intensifies after slaughter due to the changes in the environment and the loss of intrinsic antioxidant capacity.
The rate of lipid oxidation in meat intended for consumption depends on several factors, ranging from the environment where the animal was raised to the storage conditions of cooked meat Shah et al.
Plant extracts as natural antioxidants in meat and meat products. Meat Science, 98 1 , The mechanisms of the factors involved in lipid oxidation in meat and meat products are discussed next. Lipid oxidation is a major cause of the deterioration of fatty tissues in meats. It is a spontaneous and inevitable process that directly affects meat commercial value and products Lima et al.
induced by several factors through quite complex mechanisms. The major known factors involved in these reactions include the type of lipid structure and its environment. The degree of the unsaturation in fatty acids, exposure to light and heat, and the presence of molecular oxygen, pro-oxidant and antioxidant components are factors affecting the oxidative stability of lipids Lima et al.
Natural components found in muscle tissue such as iron, myoglobin Mb , hydrogen peroxide H 2 O 2 , and ascorbic acid can cause lipid oxidation, acting as catalysts or promoting the formation of reactive oxygen species ROS. Oxidative reactions can also be initiated by physical factors such as radiation and light.
Oxidative stability of fermented meat products. Acta Scientiarum Polonorum. Technologia Alimentaria , 11 2 , Shelf life of fresh foal meat under MAP, overwrap and vacuum packaging conditions. Meat Science, 92 4 , Autoxidation is a very complex chemical phenomenon that involves self-programming radical reactions and depends on catalytic action temperature, pH, metal ions, and free radicals.
The overall mechanism of oxidation includes three steps:. On the other hand, enzymatic oxidation is catalyzed by lipoxygenase, enzymes that oxidize fatty acids leading to the addition of oxygen to the hydrocarbon chain. Lipid Oxidation LOx is defined as a chain reaction of free radicals and consists of three stages: initiation, propagation, and termination.
In the course of the reaction, there is a free radical that reacts with the hydrocarbon chain of the fatty acid forming peroxides, which, in turn, react with other hydrocarbon chains abstracting hydrogens originating hydroperoxides.
The carbon chain, from which the hydrogens have been abstracted, will act as new peroxide, perpetuating the cycle Estevez, Estevez, M. Oxidative damage to poultry: from farm to fork. Poultry Science , 94 6 , Free radicals are highly reactive species that have one or more free electrons, which can exist independently for a short period.
These reactive oxygen molecules can be produced intentionally or accidentally. In biological systems, they are produced during the normal aerobic metabolism. Mitochondria consume molecular oxygen reducing it by sequential steps to produce ATP and H 2 O.
During this process, O 1. Meanwhile, the cells that protect the body phagocytes deliberately generate O 1. Boca Raton: CRC Press.
Oxidation during digestion of meat: interactions with the diet and Helicobacter pylori Gastritis, and implications on human health. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety, 16 2 , Radical species formed during the process may be stabilized into non-radical compounds.
The peroxides that are commonly formed as LOX primary products can subsequently undergo scission to form lower molecular weight volatile and non-volatile compounds secondary LOX products such as carbonyls, alcohols, hydrocarbons, and furans. Among these, aldehydes are one of the most abundant products found in meat, such as hexanal malondialdehyde MDA and 4-hydroxytrans-nonenal Estevez, Estevez, M.
Oxidative deterioration takes place according to the mechanisms described above as soon as the antioxidant capacity of proteins and other redox-active components in the environment is exceeded Estevez, Estevez, M. In addition to the pH decline, other post-mortem biochemical changes, such as changes in the cellular compartmentalization and the release of free-catalytic iron and oxidazing enzymes also contribute to the promotion of LOx Zhang et al.
Consumption of oxidized oil increases oxidative stress in broilers and affects the quality of breast meat. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 59 3 , The extent of LOx in post-mortem meat is highly dependent on the origin of the meat, type of muscle, species, and storage conditions Estevez, Estevez, M.
Malondialdehyde MDA is a relatively stable secondary product of the oxidative degradation of polyunsaturated fatty acids PUFAs. It is a three-carbon dialdehyde that can exist in various forms depending on the pH value. Cyclic peroxides, biclyclic endoperoxides, and hydroperoxyl are some of its major precursors Lima et al.
Lipids found in biological systems are oxidable in different degrees and consist of one or more of the following classes: mixture of mono-, di- and tri- glycerides, phospholipids, free fatty acids, and sterols. Triglycerides result from the esterification of a molecule of glycerol with three fatty acids and are considered the main responsible for the development of rancidity.
The lipid oxidation reactions occur mainly in fatty acids, and the phospholipids present in the membranes and in the subcellular structures can be a good substrate for this reaction Laguerre et al. Evaluation of the ability of antioxidants to counteract lipid oxidation: existing methods, new trends and challenges.
Progress in Lipid Research, 46 5 , Lipid oxidation increases significantly with the increase of unsaturated groups double bond. PUFAs oxidize more rapidly than the monounsaturated fatty acids.
The linoleic acid C oxidation occurs ten times faster than that of the oleic acid C , which, in turn, occurs 20 to 30 times slower than that of the oxidation of the linolenic acid C This is primarily due to the fact that less energy is required for the removal of hydrogen from a carbon double bond than the energy required to remove it from a methyl carbon, especially when the carbon is between two double-bonds.
The hydrogen bonded to this carbon is easily removed and thus lipid peroxidation occurs. In general, the formation of lipid peroxides is not affected by the length of the fatty acid chain, but lipid peroxidation increases exponentially with the number of bis-allylic positions Lima et al.
Reducing lipid peroxidation for improving colour stability of beef and lamb: on-farm considerations. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture , 92 4 , High levels of PUFA in food or diets are generally associated with an increase of concentration of PUFAs in the meat muscles and lipid oxidation in the body.
This results in reduced lipid stability and a potential impact on the color stability of the meat, at marginal concentration levels.
A study on muscles of pasture-fed cattle reported the presence of two to three times more PUFAs with three or more double bonds than those of grain-fed cattle. At the same time, there was lower lipid stability, except when there was α-tocopherol supplementation or high level of antioxidants in the pasture-fed cattle.
Although the high content of PUFA in meat is considered desirable from a nutritional point of view, it can affect the oxidative stability of meat. Lipid oxidation in meat can be triggered by metal ions that can easily donate electrons, such as copper and iron, leading to increased rate of free radical production Lima et al.
Iron is the most abundant transition metal in biological systems and has multiple oxidation state, reduction potential, and electron configuration. There is extensive evidence that this metal has an important role in lipid peroxidation as a primary initiator and catalyst.
Effect of NaCl, myoglobin, Fe II , and Fe III on lipid oxidation of raw and cooked chicken breast and beef loin. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 58 1 , Furthermore, the ferrylmyoglobin formed by the interaction between H 2 O 2 and metmyoglobin can abstract a hydrogen atom from a bis-allylic position of a PUFA and initiate lipid peroxidation Min et al.
It is known that the muscles with higher concentration of myoglobin are more susceptible to lipid oxidation Lima et al. There is evidence that the interaction of metmyoglobin with hydrogen peroxide or lipid hydroperoxides LOOH results in the formation of ferrylmyoglobin, which can initiate the free radical chain reaction.
Furthermore, ferrylmyoglobin as well as metmyoglobin can degrade LOOH to free radicals such as peroxyl and alkoxyl radicals, which can initiate or catalyze a series of propagation and termination steps of LOx. A more recent study suggested that lipid peroxidation induced metmyoglobin can be caused by ferrylmyoglobin or by the hematin generated in interaction between metmyoglobin and LOOH, rather than the released iron Min et al.
Endogenous factors affecting oxidative stability of beef loin, pork loin, and chicken breast and thigh meats. Journal of Food Science, 73 6 , The ability of antioxidant compounds to reduce the ferric ion to ferrous ion has been used to evaluate the antioxidant activity in meat.
Several antioxidant compounds, such as ascorbic acid, NADPH, and thiol compounds glutathione , are present in biological cells and are probably responsible for the ferric reduction capacity in meat. Ascorbic acid is an important biological reducing agent capable of serving as an electron donor in oxidative processes mediated by free radicals.
Ascorbic acid may serve both as an antioxidant and as a pro-oxidant, depending on its concentration. It has been suggested that ascorbic acid in low concentrations tends to promote lipid peroxidation in muscle tissues by reducing ionic iron, whereas at high concentrations, it tends to inhibit LOx by regenerating antioxidants such as α-tocopherol in the cell membrane.
The effect of the concentration of ascorbic acid on lipid peroxidation also depends on the iron concentration Min et al. Lipoxygenase is an enzyme essential for the eicosanoid biosynthesis from the arachidonic acid in cell membranes, and it is present in the muscle tissue of various mammals.
This enzyme can directly oxygenate PUFAs forming lipid hydroperoxides. Thus, lipoxygenase may be involved in the initiation of lipid peroxidation in meats Min et al. Raw beef is much more susceptible to LOx than raw pork and raw chicken Min et al. This difference is mainly due to the considerably larger amount of iron and myoglobin in bovine muscle Min et al.
Min et al. found similar TBARS levels in cooked beef and chicken drumsticks internal temperature of 75 °C , which were considerably higher than the levels found in pork and cooked chicken breast.
These findings indicate that the content of free ionic iron and myoglobin and the ferric reducing ability were the main determinants for the differences in susceptibility of raw meats to LOx.
On the other hand, for cooked meats under heating , the main determinants seem to be free ionic iron content, heat-stable ferric iron reducing capacity, and PUFA levels, when there is sufficient amount of free iron Min et al. Several factors involved in processing and storage, such as size reduction processes, heating, maturation, boning, additives, oxygen exposure, temperature, and storage time, can influence the rate of LOx in meat and meat products.
Oxygen exposure is one of the most important factors for the development of LOx. Oxygen exposure is also an essential factor contributing to LOx during storage. It has been shown that in the absence of oxygen, pro-oxidants exert minimal effects on oxidation during storage.
In addition to exposing the phospholipids to oxygen, cooking also promotes the release of nonheme iron from heme pigments. Slow heating was shown to increase the release of non-heme iron more rapidly than fast heating. Also, high temperatures provide reduced activation energy for oxidation and break down of hydroperoxide into free radicals.
On the other hand, it has also been shown that freezing slows down lipid peroxidation and retards the development of NADH-dependent lipid peroxidation by inactivating the enzymes, but thawing results in reactivation of the peroxidase system.
Sodium chloride is one of the most important additives in meat industry, where it is used for enhancing preservation, flavor, softness, and water retention capacity among others.
However, it is known that it has a pro-oxidant effect in meats and meat products, depending on its concentration. The mechanism by which sodium chloride promotes lipid oxidation has not yet been clearly understood, but one possible explanation is that NaCI may disrupt the structural integrity of the membrane enabling catalysts to have access to substrates.
Pro-oxidant effects of NaCl in microbial growth-controlled and uncontrolled beef and chicken. Meat Science, 57 1 , reported the ability of this salt to release ionic iron from iron-containing molecules such as heme proteins and found that it can promote the formation of metmyoglobin.
These antioxidants can reduce the impact of some sources of oxidative stress heating and thereby inhibit their adverse effect on the muscle tissue Ismail et al. Oxidative stress biomarkers and biochemical profile in broilers chicken fed zinc bacitracin and ascorbic acid under hot climate.
American Journal of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology. In general, dietary strategies to reduce the effects of lipid oxidation on meat involve changes in the lipid composition of the feeds and antioxidant supplementation.
The animal feeding system grass, grain, or mixed can affect the lipid composition and concentration of vitamin E in the animal muscles Bekhit et al. Oxidative processes in muscle systems and fresh meat: sources, markers, and remedies. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety, 12 5 , Generally, grass-fed cattle have higher level of long-chain omega-3 and conjugated linoleic acid CLA fatty acids than grain-fed cattle Daley et al.
A review of fatty acid profiles and antioxidant content in grass-fed and grain-fed beef. Nutrition Journal, 9 1 , Despite the higher concentration of fatty acids susceptible to lipid oxidation PUFAs and CLAs found in grass-fed cattle, the rate of lipid peroxidation in the meat of these animals was lower.
A review of natural antioxidants and their effects on oxidative status, odor and quality of fresh beef produced in Argentina. Meat Science , 79 3 , Higher antioxidant enzyme activity has also been reported in animals fed this type of diet Bekhit et al.
Alpha-tocopherol is the most commonly used antioxidant in diets of monogastric and ruminant animals. Liu et al. Phenotypic blood glutathione concentration and selenium supplementation interactions on meat colour stability and fatty acid concentrations in Merino lambs.
Meat Science, 87 2 , Higher α-tocopherol concentrations did not affect antioxidant capacity. indicated that grass-based-diets provide a significantly higher concentration of α-tocopherol than grain-based-diets.
Selenium is the main antioxidant used as a dietary supplement to control lipid oxidation in meats. It is an integral component of glutathione peroxidase, an enzyme that along with vitamin E is responsible for cellular defense against free radicals Liu et al.
Effects of dietary selenium and vitamin e on growth performance, meat yield, and selenium content and lipid oxidation of breast meat of broilers reared under heat stress. Biological Trace Element Research , 1 , Habibian et al. reported that selenium supplementation 0.
Some studies suggest that selenium yeast may be a promising dietary strategy to improve the oxidative stability of poultry meat Ahmad et al.
Effects of dietary sodium selenite and selenium yeast on antioxidant enzyme activities and oxidative stability of chicken breast meat. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry , 60 29 , Selenium in poultry breeder nutrition: an update. Animal Feed Science and Technology, , Delles et al.
Dietary antioxidant supplementation enhances lipid and protein oxidative stability of chicken broiler meat through promotion of antioxidant enzyme activity. Poultry Science, 93 6 , have recently reported that supplementation with selenium yeast enhances the oxidative stability of lipids and proteins of chicken broiler meat through promotion of antioxidant enzyme activity.
Zinc is also a component of an antioxidant enzyme, the superoxide dismutase. Accordingly, Tres et al. Moderately oxidized oils and dietary zinc and α-tocopheryl acetate supplementation: effects on the oxidative stability of rabbit plasma, liver, and meat.
Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry , 58 16 , evaluated the effect of zinc supplementation on lipid stability of rabbit meat. The authors found a slight decrease in susceptibility to lipid oxidation in the meat of rabbits fed rich PSO peroxidized sunflower oil diet and a slight increase in susceptibility to lipid oxidation in rabbits fed diets rich in OSO oxidized sunflower oil.
Investigation of the serum oxidative stress in broilers fed on diets supplemented with nickel chloride. Health, 5 03 , Phenolic metabolites are common components of fruits and vegetables and have high antioxidant activity.
The antioxidant properties of phenolic acids and flavonoids depend on their redox properties and chemical structure, which allow them to act as reducing agents, hydrogen donors, and singlet oxygen quenchers. Additionally, some compounds have chelating activity, which prevents transition metals to act as oxidation promoters Kumar et al.
Recent Trends in the Use of Natural Antioxidants for Meat and Meat Products. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety, 14 6 , Dietary strategies based on vegetable products rich in phenolic compounds have been shown to be effective against lipid and protein oxidation.
Among them are thymol, tannic acid, and gallic acid Starčević et al. Production performance, meat composition and oxidative susceptibility in broiler chicken fed with different phenolic compounds. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 95 6 , Effects of ginger root Zingiber officinale on laying performance and antioxidant status of laying hens and on dietary oxidation stability.
Poultry Science , 90 8 , Oxidative stability of the meat of broilers supplemented with rosemary leaves, rosehip fruits, chokeberry pomace, and entire nettle, and effects on performance and meat quality. Poultry Science , 92 11 , Meat composition, fatty acid profile and oxidative stability of meat from broilers supplemented with pomegranate Punica granatum L.
by products. Food Chemistry , , Effects of dietary pomegranate seed pulp on oxidative stability of kid meat. Meat Science , , In addition to the inhibition of oxidative stress, some herbs and their essential oils can contribute positively to the performance, digestibility, and gut microflora of animals Cross et al.
The effect of herbs and their associated essential oils on performance, dietary digestibility, and gut microflora in chickens from 7 to 28 days of age. Brazilian Journal of Poultry Science. Supported by promising results, the use of phytogenic additives has recently been proposed as an alternative to antibiotics to control oxidative stress in broiler chickens.
Table 1 summarizes some recent studies on the effect of supplementation with phenolic compounds on oxidative stability. Ractopamine is a β-adrenergic agonist that affects animal metabolism inhibiting lipogenesis stimulating lipolysis and nitrogen retention, leading to an increase in protein synthesis.
Studies suggest that in addition to increasing lean mass, ractopamine also contributes to the reduction of lipid oxidation in pork meat Leal et al.
Qualidade da carne de suínos submetidos a dietas com diferentes nivéis de ractopamina. Archivos de Zootecnia, 63 , Associação de ractopamina e vitaminas antioxidantes para suínos em terminação.
Ciência Rural, 45 2 , Although it is a common practice in Brazil and in other countries such as the U.
There are no conclusive studies concerning the long term effects of this compound. Bromatologia em Saúde — Estudos e pesquisas dos alunos da disciplina Bromatologia em Saúde oferecida pela Faculdade de Farmácia da UFRJ: será a ractopamina a vilã da carne brasileira?
Rio de Janeiro: UFRJ. This retards lipid oxidation and rancidity without damage to sensory and nutritional properties, which maintains quality and extend shelf life of meat and meat products.
Although there are intrinsic factors in live muscles to prevent lipid oxidation, they are often lost after slaughtering, during muscle conversion of muscle to meat, primary and secondary processing, handling and storage; therefore, supplementation with extrinsic antioxidants is necessary.
For this reason, synthetic antioxidants, such as BHT and BHA, have been widely used to delay or prevent lipid oxidation by scavenging chain-carrying peroxyl radicals or suppressing the formation of free radicals. However, because of the concern over the safety of these synthetic compounds, the use of natural antioxidants in meat has been widely studied.
Natural antioxidants have great application potential in the meat industry. It is known that plant extracts, herbs, spices, and essential oils have significant antioxidant capacity, but their application in the industry is still limited due to the lack of sufficient data about their efficiency and safety in different amounts and products Kumar et al.
BHA, BHT, and TBHQ are examples of synthetic chain breaking antioxidants. This stops the oxidation process by forming a more stable compound. On the other hand, ethylenediamine tetra acetic acid EDTA is a metal chelator which binds iron preventing catalyzed oxidation of this metal.
The concentration of synthetic antioxidants allowed in food is limited to 0. Nowadays, the acceptability of synthetic additives by consumers is low since certain toxicity and carcinogenicity have been identified in some studies Faine et al.
Butyl hydroxytoluene BHT -induced oxidative stress: Effects on serum lipids and cardiac energy metabolism in rats.
Experimental and Toxicologic Pathology, 57 3 , For these reasons, the interest of the meat industry in using natural antioxidants has increased considerably Kumar et al. Natural antioxidants are an interesting alternative to conventional antioxidants. Although, they are generally more expensive and less efficient, these components are better accepted by consumers and are considered safer.
Moreover, some natural compounds have higher antioxidant capacity than synthetic compounds and some also have other positive effects on the sensory properties of meat products Kumar et al. Improving meat quality through natural antioxidants.
Chilean Journal of Agricultural Research, 71 2 , Natural antioxidants include various substances with different chemical characteristics, which can be found in any plant part such as grains, fruits, kernels, seeds, leaves, roots, peels, and barks.
The antioxidant capacity of natural extracts is related to the presence of compounds such as vitamins A, C and E, flavonoids, and other phenolic compounds.
The majority of natural antioxidants found in nature are phenolic compounds, among which are tocopherols, flavonoids, and phenolic acids. Alleviative effects of litchi Litchi chinensis Sonn.
flower on lipid peroxidation and protein degradation in emulsified pork meatballs. Journal of food and drug analysis, 23 3 , Some phenolics prevent free radical generation and the formation of reactive oxygen species, while others scavenge free radicals and chelate pro-oxidants transition metal.
A similar study demonstrated that 4 days of early time-restricted feeding improved the h blood glucose balance 6. In contrast to the aforementioned studies, this study used late time-restricted feeding consuming dinner before In addition, all the meals were prepared by the research team and were directly provided to the participants; hence, in this study, the diet of the participants could be more precisely controlled, instead of the participants consuming their own food.
This study discovered that late time-restricted feeding produced results similar to those achieved by early time-restricted feeding. In addition, compared with the control trial, time-restricted feeding did not affect the h energy metabolism of the time-restricted feeding trial, and time-restricted feeding effectively increased the fasting fat oxidation rate and the fat oxidation rate after the consumption of high-fat meals.
However, the glycerol and free fatty acid concentrations of the two trials were not different. Therefore, the exact mechanism through which time-restricted feeding increased the fat oxidation rate was unknown.
In this study, time-restricted feeding could effectively increase the fasting fat oxidation rate and the postprandial fat oxidation rate, but it did not affect the TG level after the consumption of high-fat meals.
This result indicated that 5 days of short-term time-restricted feeding resulted in a shorter action time for the higher fat oxidation rate, which may not effect on the postprandial TG level.
The possible mechanisms may be due to the increased of adrenergic activity 25 or the thermic effect of food 5. Chiu et al. used three high-fat meals per day to change the fat oxidation rate of participants; although this method effectively increased the fat oxidation rate, it did not affect the TG level after the consumption of high-fat meals This study demonstrated that the fat oxidation rate of the time-restricted feeding trial was significantly higher than that of the control trial; however, glycerol and free fatty acid concentrations were not significantly different.
Therefore, although short-term time-restricted feeding effectively increased the fat oxidation rate, it did not affect the postprandial TG reaction. Another possible reason for the intervention not affecting the TG level after the consumption of high-fat meals is that 5-day time-restricted feeding did not affect blood glucose and insulin concentrations.
Studies have suggested that insulin sensitivity is a major factor that affects the TG level after the consumption of high-fat meals Compared with late time-restricted feeding, early time-restricted feeding reduced postprandial blood glucose concentration to a higher extent in a previous study However, that study did not limit the calorie intake, and participants were 55 years old and were at a high risk of diabetes.
In comparison, this study provided all the meals to the participants during the experiment to ensure that the calorie intake of all the participants was equal.
In addition, this study controlled the calorie intake to ensure that it met the h energy requirement of the participants, and the results revealed that fasting and postprandial blood glucose concentrations and the insulin concentration were unaffected.
Accordingly, the insulin sensitivity of the participants remained unchanged; thus, the postprandial TG level was unaffected.
The male subjects recruited in this study belonged to healthy population, which had the low fasting TG levels. However, it is not certain in the results would apply to overweight, middleaged and older adults, or in at-risk populations.
The fasting fat oxidation rate were 0. Therefore, the 5 days of time-restricted feeding not only increased the fat oxidation rate in healthy normal weight male subjects as overweight subjects 5 , but also maximized the fat oxidation rate.
This may be an explanation that why the fat oxidation cannot be further increased after consuming a high fat meal. Nonetheless, this present study indicated that time-restricted feeding increased the fasting and postprandial fat oxidation, which likely lead to improved fat metabolism or cardiometabolic health Moreover, the further research is required to investigate the effect of TRF on postprandial response after a high fat meal in the overweight or at-risk populations.
The main of this study was the calculation of h energy consumption. The h energy consumption was determined through calculation, rather than through measurement by methods such as those using the respiratory chamber.
Calculations would not be as accurate as actual measurements. Studies have tested h energy consumption and yielded robust results using methods similar to that used in the present study 10 , 18 , Therefore, we believe that this method is still credible. The other limitation was that we only measure the 4th hour postprandial outcomes.
Further study may be needed to investigate the postprandial outcomes for a longer time. This study discovered that consuming meals with the same amount of calories for 5 days and using time-restricted feeding as the intervention can effectively increase the fasting fat oxidation rate and the fat oxidation rate after the consumption of high-fat meals.
However, the increased fat oxidation rate did not increase the TG level after the consumption of high-fat meals in the healthy male participants.
The further research is required to investigate the effect of time-restricted feeding on postprandial response after a high fat meal in the overweight or at-risk populations. Liu, H. Aging and dyslipidemia: A review of potential mechanisms.
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CAS Google Scholar. Wolfe, A. and Len Kravitz, Ph. Introduction Fat serves many important functions in the human body. For example, fat provides a key role for the structure and flexibility of cell membranes and also helps to regulate substance movement through the cell membranes.
Special types of fat known as eicosanoids can do specialized hormone signaling, exerting intricate control over many bodily systems, mostly in inflammation or for immune function. Perhaps the most well known function of fat is as an energy reserve. Fat serves the role of an efficient energy store because it can hold a lot of energy per gram.
That is enough energy to sustain life for the average person for approximately 65 days. Reducing body fat, whether for health, sports performance or body image reasons, is often a client's goal when working with a personal trainer, and is the focus of this article.
The Journey of a Fatty Acid to Muscle The Adipocyte Fat is primarily stored in designated fat storage cells called adipocytes. For the most part, adipocytes are located just under the skin throughout the body as well as in regions surrounding vital organs for protection called visceral fat.
Most of the fat inside the adipocytes is in the form of a triacylglycerol TAG or triglyceride. TAGs are composed of a backbone glycerol with 3 fatty acid tails. Depending on energy supply and demand, adipocytes can take up and store fat from the blood or release fat back to the blood. After eating, when energy supply is high, the hormone insulin keeps the fatty acids inside the adipocyte Duncan et al.
After a few hours of fasting, or especially during exercise, insulin levels tend to drop while other hormones such as epinephrine otherwise called adrenaline increase.
When epinephrine binds to the adipocyte it causes lipolysis of the TAG stores in the adipocyte Duncan et al. Lipolysis is the separation of the fatty acids from the glycerol backbone. After lipolysis, the fatty acids and glycerol can leave the adipocyte and enter the blood.
Fatty Acids In the Blood The blood is an aqueous water based environment. Because fat is not water-soluble i. The primary protein carrier for fat in the blood is albumin Holloway et. One albumin protein can carry multiple fatty acids through the blood to the muscle cell Horowitz and Klein, In the very small blood vessels capillaries surrounding the muscle, fatty acids can be removed from albumin and taken into the muscle Holloway et al.
Fatty Acids From the Blood into the Muscle In order for fatty acids to get from the blood into the muscle they must cross two barriers. The first is the cell lining that makes up the capillary called the endothelium and the second is the muscle cell membrane known as the sarcolemma.
Fatty acid movement across these barriers was once thought to be extremely rapid and unregulated Holloway et al.
More recent research shows that this process is not nearly as rapid as once thought and that it requires special binding proteins present at the endothelium and sarcolemma to take in fatty acids Holloway et al.
The Two Fates of Fat Inside the Muscle Once inside the muscle, a molecule called Coenzyme A CoA is added to the fatty acid Holloway et al. CoA is a transport protein which maintains the inward flow of fatty acids entering into the muscle and prepares the fatty acid for two fates: 1 oxidation a process in which electrons are removed from a molecule to produce energy or, 2 storage within the muscle Holloway et al.
Fat that is stored inside the muscle is called intramyocellular triacylglycerol IMTAG or intramuscular fat. The amount of IMTAG in slow twitch muscles the slow oxidative fibers is two to three times greater than the IMTAG stored in fast twitch muscles fibers Shaw, Clark and Wagenmakers.
This is because it is a metabolically active fatty acid substrate especially used during periods of increased energy expenditure, such as endurance exercise.
Fatty Acids Burned for Energy Fatty acids burned for energy oxidized in the muscle can either come directly from the blood or from the IMTAG stores. In order for fatty acids to be oxidized, they must be transported into the cell's mitochondria. The mitochondrion is an organelle that functions like a cellular power plant.
The mitochondrion processes fatty acids and other fuels to create a readily usable energy currency ATP to meet the energy needs of the muscle cell. Most fatty acids are transported into the mitochondria using a shuttle system called the carnitine shuttle Holloway et al. The carnitine shuttle works by using two enzymes and carnitine an amino acid-like molecule to bring the fatty acids into the mitochondria.
One of these enzymes is called carnitine palmitoyl transferase I CPTI. Once inside the mitochondria, fatty acids are broken down through several enzymatic pathways including beta-oxidation, tricarboxylic acid cycle TCA , and the electron transport chain to produce ATP. Focus Paragraph: An Overview of Fat Metabolism in the Mitochondrion Fatty acids are transported into the muscle where they are either stored as IMTAG or transported into the mitochondrion, which can be referred to as the fat-burning furnace in a person's body cells as this is the only place TAG are completely broken down.
The electron transporters take the electrons to the electron transport chain for further oxidation, which leads to a liberation of energy that is used to produce adenosine triphosphate ATP.
Unused energy becomes heat energy to sustain the body's core temperature. This ATP synthesizing process depends upon a steady supply of oxygen, which is why this process is aptly nicknamed aerobic metabolism or aerobic respiration.
Fatty Aid Oxidation During a Single Bout of Exercise At the start of exercise blood flow increases to adipose tissue and muscle Horowitz and Klein, This allows for increased fatty acid release from adipose tissue and fatty acid delivery to the muscle.
Exercise intensity has a great impact on fat oxidation. This counterintuitive drop in fat utilization during high intensity exercise is caused by several factors. One factor is related to blood flow to adipose tissue and thus reduced fatty acid supply to the muscle.
At high exercise intensity, blood flow is shunted or directed away from adipose tissue so that fatty acids released from adipose tissue become trapped in the adipose capillary beds, and are not carried to the muscle to be used Horowitz and Klein, Another reason for reduced fat usage at high exercise intensities is related to the enzyme CPT1.
CPT1 is important in the carnitine shuttle that moves fatty acids into the mitochondria for oxidation. The activity of CPT1 can be reduced under conditions of high intensity exercise. Two mechanisms are thought to reduce CPT1 activity during intense exercise.
As stated above, with increasing exercise intensity fatty acid oxidation drops while carbohydrate oxidation increases.
The increased usage of carbohydrate leads to increased levels of a molecule called malonyl CoA inside the cell Horowitz and Klein, Malonyl CoA can bind to and inhibit the activity of CPT1 Achten and Jeukendrup, Another way intense exercise may reduce CPT1 activity is by changes in cellular pH.
The cellular pH is the measure of the acidity in the cell's cytoplasm fluid in terms of the activity of hydrogen ions. As exercise intensity increases the muscle becomes more acidic.
Increased acidity which means the pH is lowering can also inhibit CPT1 Achten and Jeukendrup, The reason for the increased acidity during high intensity exercise is not because of lactic acid formation as once thought.
Instead, acidosis increases because the muscle is using more ATP at the contracting muscle fibers just outside of the mitochondria , and the splitting of ATP releases many hydrogen ions into the cellular fluid sarcoplasm leading to the acidosis in the cell Robergs, Ghiasvand and Parker, Too much emphasis is often placed on percent of fatty acid contribution of Calories burned during a single bout of exercise.
Recovery from a bout of exercise as well as training adaptations to repeated bouts are important to consider when working with clients with fat loss goals.
Focus Paragraph. The Splitting of Adenosine Triphosphate ATP ATP is split by water called hydrolysis with the aid of the ATPase enzyme.
During intense exercise there is a high level of hydrolysis of ATP by the muscles fibers. Each ATP molecule that is split releases a hydrogen ion, which is the cause of acidosis in the cell Robergs, Ghiasvand and Parker, This acidosis can slow the carnitine shuttle that moves fatty acids into the mitochondria for oxidation.
Editorial on the Maxiized Topic Possible Mechanisms Standardized extract Explain Xoidizing Longevity and health Loss Effect Benefits of exercise for hypertension Exercise Training Maximized fat oxidizing mechanisms Than Mecganisms Acid Oxidation. Obesity is a major oxidizinb problem throughout the world, being one of the leading oxidizig factors Maximized fat oxidizing mechanisms type 2 diabetes mellitus, high blood pressure, cardiovascular disease, and premature death Després and Lemieux, ; Ritchie and Connell, According to the World Health Organization, obesity has tripled over the last 40 years. Thus, recommended methods for weight management have flourished during this time. The fundamental cause for weight gain is an energy imbalance between calories consumed and calories expended. Undeniably, there are a number of factors that can affect caloric expenditure and consumption. Top of Boost Brain Alertness Naturally Research Interests Mechanosms Articles New Projects Miscellaneous UNM Home. Oxxidizing Pag Mqximized. The Physiology of Maximized fat oxidizing mechanisms Loss Mike Deyhle, Christine Mermier, Ph. and Len Kravitz, Ph. Introduction Fat serves many important functions in the human body. For example, fat provides a key role for the structure and flexibility of cell membranes and also helps to regulate substance movement through the cell membranes.Maximized fat oxidizing mechanisms -
In this study, meals were provided that met the h energy requirement of each participant for 5 days. The intervention was time-restricted feeding conducted at different parts of the day.
The results revealed that time-restricted feeding effectively increased the fasting fat oxidation rate and the fat oxidation rate after the consumption of high-fat meals. However, the increased fat oxidation rate exerted no effects on the TG level following high-fat meals, h energy consumption, resting energy expenditure, or reactions of blood biochemical substances.
This study confirmed the fasting fat oxidation rate and the fat oxidation rate after the consumption of high-fat meals were effectively increased via the 5-day of time-restricted feeding period. On the contrary, the h energy expenditure and resting energy expenditure showed no influence by the restricted feeding.
Studies applying time-restricted feeding have mostly used interventions with a duration of a few weeks, and the results showed that time-restricted feeding decreased body weight and improved metabolism 7 , 8.
Studies that utilized short-term time-restricted feeding have discovered that 4 days of early time-restricted feeding consuming dinner before effectively increased the fat oxidation rate and reduced appetite, however, it did not affect h energy expenditure and resting energy expenditure 5.
A similar study demonstrated that 4 days of early time-restricted feeding improved the h blood glucose balance 6. In contrast to the aforementioned studies, this study used late time-restricted feeding consuming dinner before In addition, all the meals were prepared by the research team and were directly provided to the participants; hence, in this study, the diet of the participants could be more precisely controlled, instead of the participants consuming their own food.
This study discovered that late time-restricted feeding produced results similar to those achieved by early time-restricted feeding. In addition, compared with the control trial, time-restricted feeding did not affect the h energy metabolism of the time-restricted feeding trial, and time-restricted feeding effectively increased the fasting fat oxidation rate and the fat oxidation rate after the consumption of high-fat meals.
However, the glycerol and free fatty acid concentrations of the two trials were not different. Therefore, the exact mechanism through which time-restricted feeding increased the fat oxidation rate was unknown. In this study, time-restricted feeding could effectively increase the fasting fat oxidation rate and the postprandial fat oxidation rate, but it did not affect the TG level after the consumption of high-fat meals.
This result indicated that 5 days of short-term time-restricted feeding resulted in a shorter action time for the higher fat oxidation rate, which may not effect on the postprandial TG level.
The possible mechanisms may be due to the increased of adrenergic activity 25 or the thermic effect of food 5. Chiu et al. used three high-fat meals per day to change the fat oxidation rate of participants; although this method effectively increased the fat oxidation rate, it did not affect the TG level after the consumption of high-fat meals This study demonstrated that the fat oxidation rate of the time-restricted feeding trial was significantly higher than that of the control trial; however, glycerol and free fatty acid concentrations were not significantly different.
Therefore, although short-term time-restricted feeding effectively increased the fat oxidation rate, it did not affect the postprandial TG reaction. Another possible reason for the intervention not affecting the TG level after the consumption of high-fat meals is that 5-day time-restricted feeding did not affect blood glucose and insulin concentrations.
Studies have suggested that insulin sensitivity is a major factor that affects the TG level after the consumption of high-fat meals Compared with late time-restricted feeding, early time-restricted feeding reduced postprandial blood glucose concentration to a higher extent in a previous study However, that study did not limit the calorie intake, and participants were 55 years old and were at a high risk of diabetes.
In comparison, this study provided all the meals to the participants during the experiment to ensure that the calorie intake of all the participants was equal.
In addition, this study controlled the calorie intake to ensure that it met the h energy requirement of the participants, and the results revealed that fasting and postprandial blood glucose concentrations and the insulin concentration were unaffected. Accordingly, the insulin sensitivity of the participants remained unchanged; thus, the postprandial TG level was unaffected.
The male subjects recruited in this study belonged to healthy population, which had the low fasting TG levels. However, it is not certain in the results would apply to overweight, middleaged and older adults, or in at-risk populations.
The fasting fat oxidation rate were 0. Therefore, the 5 days of time-restricted feeding not only increased the fat oxidation rate in healthy normal weight male subjects as overweight subjects 5 , but also maximized the fat oxidation rate.
This may be an explanation that why the fat oxidation cannot be further increased after consuming a high fat meal. Nonetheless, this present study indicated that time-restricted feeding increased the fasting and postprandial fat oxidation, which likely lead to improved fat metabolism or cardiometabolic health Moreover, the further research is required to investigate the effect of TRF on postprandial response after a high fat meal in the overweight or at-risk populations.
The main of this study was the calculation of h energy consumption. The h energy consumption was determined through calculation, rather than through measurement by methods such as those using the respiratory chamber. Calculations would not be as accurate as actual measurements.
Studies have tested h energy consumption and yielded robust results using methods similar to that used in the present study 10 , 18 , Therefore, we believe that this method is still credible. The other limitation was that we only measure the 4th hour postprandial outcomes.
Further study may be needed to investigate the postprandial outcomes for a longer time. This study discovered that consuming meals with the same amount of calories for 5 days and using time-restricted feeding as the intervention can effectively increase the fasting fat oxidation rate and the fat oxidation rate after the consumption of high-fat meals.
However, the increased fat oxidation rate did not increase the TG level after the consumption of high-fat meals in the healthy male participants. The further research is required to investigate the effect of time-restricted feeding on postprandial response after a high fat meal in the overweight or at-risk populations.
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CAS Google Scholar. Wolfe, A. Vardarli, E. Hourly 4-s Sprints Prevent Impairment of Postprandial Fat Metabolism from Inactivity. Sports Exerc. Download references. Thanks for Sports Science Research Center of National Taiwan University of Sport to provide the equipment for this study.
Graduate Program in Department of Exercise Health Science, National Taiwan University of Sport, No. Department of Sport Performance, National Taiwan University of Sport, Taichung, , Taiwan.
Senior Wellness and Sport Science, Tunghai University, Taichung, , Taiwan. Clinical Trial Center, China Medical University Hospital, Taichung, , Taiwan. Graduate Program in Department of Exercise Health Science, National Taiwan University of Sport, Taichung, , Taiwan.
You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar. Chih-Hui Chiu carried out the experiment, blood analysis and assisted the manuscript preparation. Che-Hsiu Chen and M. assisted the data analysis and manuscript preparation. assisted the experimental design, data analysis and manuscript preparation.
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Abstract Studies have revealed that time-restricted feeding affects the fat oxidation rate; however, its effects on the fat oxidation rate and hyperlipidemia following high-fat meals are unclear.
Introduction Consuming high-fat meals increases the triglyceride TG level in blood plasma. Design This study used a crossover design for the experiment. Protocol Pretest The pretest was to assess the total daily energy expenditure by indirect calorimetry through a series of resting assessments and exercising assessments.
Formal experiment The experiment was conducted on a 6-day period. Table 1 The macronutrient consumption for TRF and CON. Full size table.
Table 2 The participants physiological information and fasting plasma biochemistry. Figure 1. Weight loss ultimately boils down to energy balance in the body, i.
calories in vs calories out. Earlier in this article, we discussed the importance of hormone-sensitive lipase in the liberating of stored fatty acids from adipose tissue.
Insulin is the hormone in your body that is responsible for driving nutrients into your cells, including muscle and fat cells, which can then be used for energy production.
The main macronutrient that causes insulin levels to rise is carbohydrates and seeing that insulin effectively shuts off the fat burning process, maintaining low levels of insulin is essential to maximizing fat burning.
This is why so many ketogenic, low carb, no carb diets restrict carbohydrate intake. You can still have your carbs and burn body fat, but it requires some proper nutritional selections on your part.
Simple sugars create larger insulin spikes in the body than complex carbohydrates or protein. As we stated above, increasing your calories out is one of the ways you can tip energy balance in favor of fat loss. This, of course, is accomplished through exercise, and we can maximize fat burning by performing the right types of exercise.
Science has pretty clearly shown that during exercise, your muscles can use both dietary carbohydrate and fat operate as substrates used for energy. Your body has a finite amount of glycogen stored in the muscle. Once these stores are exhausted, the body will start pulling from your fat stores for energy.
Low to moderate intensity forms of exercise primarily use fat as their source of energy. The higher you go with exercise intensity, the more you shift to burning glycogen and glucose.
The longer you train, the more you deplete glycogen and once those stores are depleted, you will switch to burning fat for fuel. Additionally, the more fit you are, the lower your resting insulin levels will be, thus allowing you to burn more fat outside of your eating windows.
Due to these factors, you can begin to understand why most fasted cardio sessions are performed at a relatively low intensity -- it maximizes fat burning in the body. The oxygen deficit created by high-intensity forms of training such as weight lifting or interval training leads to greater overall calorie burning as your body works to restore homeostasis.
The point of this is to say that both steady-state and high-intensity interval training can be used to lose body fat. The mechanisms by which they work are different, but the end result is the same.
Fat burning is a billion-dollar industry, yet very few people actually understand the theory and science of what it takes to burn fat, and even fewer know how to apply it to daily life.
And, if you need some help burning extra calories and shifting your body towards a greater fat burning environment, check out Steel Sweat.
Steel Sweat is the ideal pre-workout for fasted training. Not only does it include ingredients such as caffeine which help release fatty acids to be burned for energy it also includes several pro-fat burning compounds, such as L-Carnitine L-Tartrate and Paradoxine, which take those liberated fatty acids and burn them for energy.
The Complete Guide to Thermogenesis. How Nutrients Get Absorbed into Muscles. Close 🍪 Cookie Policy We use cookies and similar technologies to provide the best experience on our website. Accept Decline. Your cart is empty Continue shopping. Clear Close. Ingredients The Complete Guide to Fat Oxidation.
Educate them. Fat Burning vs. What does fat oxidation mean? What Happens during Fat Oxidation? Oxidation: Burning Fat for Fuel As the fatty acids enter the cell, they are stored in the cytoplasm of the cell, which is the thick solution that fills the inner regions of the cell.
How to Increase Fat Oxidation Since most people entering the fitness space are wanting to lose fat, it would make sense to discuss what things we can do to enhance fat oxidation and accelerate fat loss. Reduce Calories One of these ways is by reducing caloric expenditure, i.
Regulate Insulin Levels Earlier in this article, we discussed the importance of hormone-sensitive lipase in the liberating of stored fatty acids from adipose tissue.
Is there anything you can do? And it comes in the form of Exercise As we stated above, increasing your calories out is one of the ways you can tip energy balance in favor of fat loss. Muscle glycogen content Your body has a finite amount of glycogen stored in the muscle. Exercise intensity Low to moderate intensity forms of exercise primarily use fat as their source of energy.
Does that mean you should only perform steady-state cardio when trying to lose body fat? No, not at all. html Arner, P. Human fat cell lipolysis: biochemistry, regulation and clinical role. Lipolysis — A highly regulated multi-enzyme complex mediates the catabolism of cellular fat stores. Progress in Lipid Research.
Holloway, G.
Journal of the International Mechznisms of Sports Nutrition volume 18Article number: 5 Cite Organic herbs and spices Maximized fat oxidizing mechanisms. Metrics details. There oxidziing evidence that Longevity and health increases Maximixed maximal fat oxidation rate MFO and aerobic capacity, which are known to be lower in the morning than in the afternoon. This paper examines the effect of caffeine intake on the diurnal variation of MFO during a graded exercise test in active men. A graded cycling test was performed.
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Ganz und gar nicht.
Ich bin endlich, ich tue Abbitte, aber mir ist es etwas mehr die Informationen notwendig.
Es ist der Fehler geschehen