Optimal nutrition periodization -
Protein remains moderate and there is slightly higher fat intake, also to help support the increased energy demands. We can also think about periodization on a daily basis. Regardless of which cycle you are in, the energy demands on your recovery day will be lower than on a high volume or high intensity day.
Periodize your daily eating for optimal fueling habits. This takes the periodization down to the level of hours and minutes.
In a recent review publication by Asker Jeukendrup Ref. Indeed, the seminal scientists and coaches who developed the principles of periodization include Dr.
Hans Selye with his General Adaptation Syndrome model Selye, , followed by Matveyev, Bonderchuck, and Bompa contributions reviewed by Issurin, Numerous approaches to periodization have emerged from this work, including classical, block, polarized, and complex models Issurin, ; Kiely, Within this diversity is a central theme: the purposeful sequencing of different training units long [macrocycle; months], medium [mesocycle; weeks], and short [microcycle; days and within-day duration] so that athletes can attain the desired readiness to perform optimally for targeted events on demand Stone et al.
However, it is now appreciated that the chaos and complexities of the individual, exposed to various stimuli physical, emotional, and genetic , are probably much more complicated than most periodization purists would want to admit Kiely, Furthermore, the impact of nutrition on training adaptation and performance needs to be recognized.
The International Association of Athletics Federations Nutrition Consensus presented the first formal opportunity to provide theoretical guidelines for nutrition periodization, with suggestions of the approximate energetic and macronutrient demands of different training phases within a yearly periodized training plan Stellingwerff et al.
By extension, given the unique demands of all athletic disciplines and events, it is beyond the scope of this review to highlight every potential nutrition periodization approach. Instead, we will focus on a general framework highlighting the various considerations in the implementation of periodized nutrition.
This review will then highlight an emerging nutritional periodization concept around the various approaches to carbohydrate CHO and fat periodization; from a macrocycle weeks to months; e.
For example, optimizing protein PRO intake, PRO quality, and timing achieves only a minor adaptive hypertrophic response without the potent stimulus of resistance exercise.
However, nutrition serves an important function given that elite athletes have — eating occasions per year, whereas training — times. Accordingly, Figure 1 highlights a theoretical framework that is fundamental for the prioritization and optimization of nutrition periodization that practitioners can apply to a myriad of nutrition interventions.
First, the coach and the entire support staff should have a full and comprehensive understanding of the event-specific physiological, neuromuscular, structural, and psychological determinants for success.
Second, the performance gaps of the individual athlete should be quantified as best as possible against these performance determinants. From this construct, the coach will strategically develop the various macro- months to years , meso- weeks to months , and microcycles days to within days aspects of training periodization and its specific sessions, using these as to bridge between the goals and the gap.
The periodized training schedule provides a framework for the sports nutrition professional to match nutritional strategies to support training outcomes. Table 1 highlights the rationale involved in implementing macro-, meso-, and microperiodized nutrition recommendations.
Conversely, Figure 1 outlines the process and highlights several periodized nutrition examples, such as the macronutrient CHO and PRO , micronutrient iron , and ergogenic aid creatine examples of macro-, meso-, and microperiodization, respectively.
However, the narrative of this review will exclusively focus on energy and CHO periodization. Citation: International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism 29, 2; Energy intake EI is a primary nutritional characteristic as it a establishes the baseline from which intakes of the macronutrients including muscle substrates are derived, b influences the capacity of the diet to achieve micronutrient targets within nutrient-density constraints, and c allows the manipulation of physique via the interaction of training and energy balance.
In addition, some athletes may desire to manipulate their EI in attempts to alter physical and structural characteristics e. Accordingly, energy manipulations should be strategically integrated into the annual plan to minimize the effects on training quality or competition performance, and strategies should aim to maintain sufficient energy availability EA to reduce the acute and chronic issues associated with the development of Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport [RED-S; Mountjoy et al.
For a specific review of low EA and RED-S in track and field athletes, the reader is referred to review by Melin et al. To undertake periodization of EI, the nutrition professional and coach need to undertake a full audit of step 3 within Figure 1 of our framework through a nutrition lens.
This assessment should include estimations of total caloric and substrate utilization for each unique type of workout, which then influences the fluctuations or manipulations of energy and macronutrient intake that needs to be integrated into daily eating patterns, as well as an appreciation of these elements over a given training meso and macrocycle.
Many indirect protocols can be implemented to provide information on energy expenditure of exercise EEE and fuel use; these include indirect calorimetry to estimate fuel utilization linked to internal load e. It should be stressed, however, that accurate measurements of EI Larson-Meyer et al.
However, having an understanding of general needs and how they fluctuate can allow the athlete to develop behavioral practices that allow EI to track with EEE e. The emerging concept of periodization of body composition allows characteristics to be manipulated within an individualized range across different phases of the annual plan according to short- and long-term issues of training adaptation, health, and performance Heydenreich et al.
Further metabolic enhancement can also occur by improving the delivery of nutrients and oxygen to the working muscle, reducing the accumulation of by-products that might disturb cellular homeostasis or metabolic regulation, or improving the efficiency economy of these pathways to produce ATP across a range of absolute and relative exercise intensities.
Carefully organized dietary interventions to enhance the exercise-nutrient interactions can augment the role that training alone already provides. The availability of modern laboratory technologies to investigate cellular signaling events over the past decade has expanded insights into the role of nutritional support in promoting adaptations to exercise.
It is now known that many substrates, and in particular muscle glycogen and plasma free fatty acids, act not only as fuels for the exercise bout being undertaken, but also as regulators of the cellular and whole body adaptation to exercise, and specifically endurance exercise Hansen et al.
In relation to this, the reader is directed to a recent review in which a range of acute and chronically applied strategies to manipulate fat and CHO availability are defined and explained, at least in relation to endurance events, to address some confusion over terminology, application, and theoretical basis Burke et al.
With this approach, total daily CHO intake and its distribution over the day can be modified day-by-day and meal-by-meal i. Therefore, the achievement of high CHO availability defined as CHO stores available to provide the substrate needs of an event or training session is a key goal of competition nutrition and the reader is directed to reviews of the individualized competition needs across events in track and field Burke et al.
In addition to promoting training quality, undertaking sessions with high CHO availability can enhance the pathways of oxygen-independent glycolysis and CHO oxidation Cox et al. The landmark studies in the field have typically manipulated preexercise muscle glycogen availability Hansen et al.
However, it is now recognized that practical models of CHO periodization must extend beyond just manipulating preexercise muscle glycogen availability. Accordingly, CHO availability is defined as the sum of the current individual endogenous i.
According to this definition, it is possible to have insufficient CHO availability even if exercise is commenced with high preexercise muscle glycogen stores if an inadequate dose of exogenous CHO is consumed during prolonged exercise to sustain the desired intensity Coyle et al.
Alternatively, it is possible to commence exercise with reduced muscle glycogen, but can still be considered to have sufficient CHO availability if the exogenous CHO consumed during exercise permits the completion of the desired training intensity and duration Widrick et al.
In the mitochondria, PGC-1α coactivates Tfam to coordinate regulation of mitochondrial DNA and induces expression of key mitochondrial proteins of the electron transport chain, for example, COX subunits.
Similar to PGC-1α, p53 also translocates to the mitochondria to modulate Tfam activity and mitochondrial DNA expression and to the nucleus where it functions to increase expression of proteins involved in mitochondrial fission and fusion Drp-1 and Mfn-2 and electron transport chain protein proteins.
The various main approaches to manipulating CHO availability in relation to training are presented in Table 2. Essentially, it is now recognized that manipulation of both endogenous and exogenous CHO availability before Hansen et al.
These modalities may more naturally lend themselves to train-low sessions given the nonweight-bearing activity and lower eccentric loading compared with running. Second, the CHO requirements of the typical training sessions undertaken by elite track and field athletes are not well known and practitioners must use theoretical knowledge of glycogen utilization from relevant laboratory and field-based studies to organize appropriate manipulation of training and diet.
Of particular note to track and field athletes are the negative effects of reduced CHO and energy availability on markers of bone turnover Sale et al. Although this needs to be confirmed in a longitudinal model, prolonged periods of training with reduced CHO availability may potentially increase the risk for stress fractures, in runners who are already at risk for RED-S and stress fractures Heikura et al.
Indeed, low CHO availability may mediate disturbed reproductive function in its own right Loucks, , creating another pathway to explain the increase in musculoskeletal injuries seen with low EA Rauh et al.
Similarly, reduced CHO availability during training may lead to increased susceptibility to illness owing to the role of CHO in modulating postexercise immune responses Costa et al. Indeed, Impey et al. Overview of Practical Approaches to Manipulate Endogenous and Exogenous CHO Availability Within CHO Periodization Strategies.
For a summary of the terminology and rationale of different strategies of periodized fuel support for training and competition, see Burke et al. and competitive goals e. An illustration of the implementation of periodized CHO availability in the real world was provided by a week case study of three elite marathon runners Stellingwerff, These athletes undertook a weekly average of 2.
However, during the subsequent 4-week period which focused on competition preparation, nutritional strategies shifted toward an increased frequency of practicing CHO fueling during training sessions 2.
Rather, careful day-to-day periodization is likely to maintain metabolic flexibility and still allow the completion of high-intensity and prolonged duration workloads on heavy training days. Intuitively, train-low may be best left to those training sessions that are not as CHO dependent and where the intensity and duration is not likely to be compromised by reduced CHO availability e.
As with all nutritional strategies, application of CHO periodization should only be done in conjunction with appropriately qualified nutrition professionals and be continually refined and optimized. Although endurance-trained athletes have an enhanced capacity for fat oxidation compared with untrained, this adaptation is clearly not maximized from training alone as it can be doubled, or even tripled, by chronic adaptation to a LCHF diet Burke et al.
However, studies have shown that as little as 5 days of exposure to HFLC diets, while continuing to undertake both high volume and intensity of training, achieves a robust retooling of the muscle to increase intramuscular triglycerides stores, and enhance the mobilization, transport, uptake, and oxidation of fats for review see Burke, By itself, however, chronic adaptation to a NK-LCHF does not translate into clear improvements in endurance performance, except in specific scenarios or individuals Burke, Therefore, a microperiodization protocol which theoretically could sequentially enhance the capacity of both fat- and CHO-based fuel oxidation prior to an endurance event has been proposed; this involves a 5—6 days fat adaptation phase followed by acute restoration of CHO availability just prior to and during the endurance task Burke et al.
Investigation of this protocol showed that the muscle retooling achieved by the fat-adaptation phase is robust in continuing to promote higher rates of fat oxidation in the face of aggressive strategies to restore high CHO availability during the endurance task Burke et al.
Despite substantially reduced rates of muscle glycogen utilization during the early part of the exercise task, there was no clear enhancement of a subsequent time trial in any of these studies. One apparent explanation for this outcome is that, rather than sparing glycogen utilization, chronic exposure to a high-fat diet causes an impairment of CHO oxidation during exercise due to a reduction on glycogenolysis and a downregulation of the activity of the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex [PDH; Stellingwerff et al.
Data from rodent models suggests that such inhibition of PDH activity may actually be due to the effects of reduced muscle glycogen availability. Indeed, commencing exercise with reduced muscle glycogen augments the activation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-δ PPAR-δ; Philp et al.
In human muscle, however, we have recently shown that the downregulation of CHO metabolism appears to be a consequence of the high-fat diet and increased fat availability rather than CHO restriction alone Leckey et al. The consequences of reduced CHO utilization within the tricarboxylic acid cycle are likely to manifest in a reduced capacity for ATP production at high intensities.
The proposed benefits of chronic adaptation to ketogenic LCHF diets has also received recent attention in both the lay Brukner, and the scientific press Noakes et al.
However, Phinney et al. already noted that this feat was achieved in the face of impairments of capacity to undertake exercise at higher intensities. A more recent investigation of 3. In this study, some of the highest rates for fat oxidation ever reported in the literature were achieved following adaptation to the K-LCHF diet, under conditions of either fasting or intake of fat during a prolonged exercise protocol.
However, this was associated with an increase in the oxygen cost i. Taken together, chronic LCHF interventions have been shown to a decrease CHO oxidation Burke et al. This would decrease the effectiveness of CHO feeding strategies, thus increasing the risk of gut disturbances Jeukendrup, b.
It is important that coaches and athletes understand the metabolic demands and limiting factors in their events Figure 1 , and trial-specific interventions on an individual level Figure 3 , and realize that all sustained majority of track and field events are exceptionally CHO dependent.
The numerous various events in athletics, all with unique bioenergetics, biomechanical, and structural performance determinants, lend themselves to endless permutations of potential periodized nutrition interventions. Therefore, this review took a holistic approach to develop a nutrition periodization framework to guide practitioners in the field across these nutrition periodization options, while grounding them in targeted intervention first principles Figure 1 and Table 1.
From this framework, the literature has been examined regarding macro-, meso-, and microperiodization of CHO availability, and consequently, fat periodization Table 2 and Figure 2 , with considerations and recommendations to individualize and test in the field, as required Figure 3.
However, Figure 1 highlights various other nutrition examples of periodization that are beyond the scope of this review, but we would highlight a few other papers in this series that also feature periodized nutrition examples for protein Witard et al.
With an appreciation of the complexities of training periodization, future directions in this field should include better quantification of knowledge and application of existing periodized approaches in elite athletes, as well as systematically controlled CHO periodization approaches over prolonged training blocks in larger cohorts of athletes.
In summary, the field of periodized nutrition has made considerable gains over the last decade, but is ripe for further progress. Akerstrom , T.
Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications, 3 , — PubMed ID: doi Areta , J. Skeletal muscle glycogen content at rest and during endurance exercise in humans: A meta-analysis.
Sports Medicine. Advance online publication. Bartlett , J. Reduced carbohydrate availability enhances exercise-induced p53 signaling in human skeletal muscle: Implications for mitochondrial biogenesis. American Journal of Physiology. Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology, 6 , — Brukner , P.
Can elite athletes eat LCHF and win? Burke , L. Fueling strategies to optimize performance: Training high or training low? Sports Medicine, 45 Suppl. Adaptations to short-term high-fat diet persist during exercise despite high carbohydrate availability.
Commentary: Towards a universal understanding of diet-exercise strategies to manipulate fuel availability for training support and competition preparation in endurance sport.
International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 28 5 , — Contemporary nutrition strategies to optimize performance in distance runners and race walkers. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism Low carbohydrate, high fat diet impairs exercise economy and negates the performance benefit from intensified training in elite race walkers.
The Journal of Physiology, 9 , — Carey , A. Effects of fat adaptation and carbohydrate restoration on prolonged endurance exercise. Journal of Applied Physiology, 91 1 , — Costa , R. The effects of a high carbohydrate diet on cortisol and salivary immunoglobulin A s-IgA during a period of increase exercise workload amongst Olympic and Ironman triathletes.
International Journal of Sports Medicine, 26 10 , — Nutrition for ultramarathon running: Trail, track, and road. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, Gut-training: The impact of two weeks repetitive gut-challenge during exercise on gastrointestinal status, glucose availability, fuel kinetics, and running performance.
Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism, 42 5 , — Cox , G. Daily training with high carbohydrate availability increases exogenous carbohydrate oxidation during endurance cycling.
Journal of Applied Physiology, 1 , — Finished almost last in his first triathlon, which sparked a desire to improve and strive for excellence. After this, Bob began transitioning into becoming an endurance athlete himself and worked to understand everything that he could about nutrition for endurance athletes and what they need.
Blossomed into an endurance athlete sports dietitian, so to speak. Nutrition periodization is looking at any athlete with particular seasons -on, -off, base training etc.
Athletes are going through different cycles of training and ultimately have different goals within each training cycle. Periodization takes into consideration volume, intensity, and what are you trying to do in terms of energy requirements to manipulate weight gain, loss, strength, power, body composition etc.
Eating to train not training to eat. If you are trying to build mass - consuming the right foods pre-, during, and post- to support what you are doing.
Ultimately, nutrition periodization is cycling your nutrients based on what your body needs at that particular training cycle. Taking the concept of teaching the body to use more of its internal stored fat and utilizing that versus using stored carbohydrates.
There is an opportunity for athletes to manipulate the amount of fat they are using for energy and preserve carbohydrates.
Training the body to keep carbohydrates at bay until they are really needed. Bob embarked on a day carnivore diet and did metabolic and blood marker testing on both day 1 and day 30 for comparison Bob found that his body weight changed, he was feeling full longer, he felt that he had more energy while training as well as recovered better.
Bob also saw positive results in his blood work at the end of the days compared to day 1. The biggest problem Bob experienced was finding fat to consume. Bob wanted to challenge the controlled carbohydrate, higher fat plan with various energy system demands. Bob did not see any negative differences in his performance and is now supporting a leaner physique, which he feels is beneficial to the demands of being an endurance athlete.
The number 1 goal Bob has for any athlete he works with regardless of athlete goals, age, sport, position is how do we best control blood sugar, improve health, and optimize performance.
Nutrition can have a major impact on periorization adaptations to training Priodization. Nutrition can both Powerful Fat Burner and nutriton the adaptations and is thus an important tool to nutirtion performance Optimall. It is not just Optjmal muscle that Optimal nutrition periodization affected although this is the organ that is perhaps studied the mostother tissues such as the brain, the vasculature and the intestine, can also be affected. There is more and more discussion, both in the scientific literature and also in the popular press, about the effects of nutrition on training adaptations. No one clearly defined, however, what methods are part of this periodized nutrition approach and people have interpreted the terms in different ways. It is Nurtition increasingly nutriion that adaptations, initiated by exercise, can be Angiogenesis and pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) or reduced by nutritino. Various methods periodizatiom been discussed to optimize periodizatlon adaptations and Optimal nutrition periodization of these methods have been Nutrition periodization for performance to extensive periodizstion. To date, most methods have focused on skeletal muscle, but it is important to note that training effects also include adaptations in other tissues e. The purpose of this review is to define the concept of periodized nutrition also referred to as nutritional training and summarize the wide variety of methods available to athletes. The reader is referred to several other recent review articles that have discussed aspects of periodized nutrition in much more detail with primarily a focus on adaptations in the muscle.
Bemerkenswert, die sehr guten Informationen