Exploring plant compounds -
Gene duplication appears not only to solve the physicochemical dilemma of functional constraints between the original and the new activity of a single progenitor enzyme and allow the new activity to be rewired within a reasonable spatiotemporal framework but also to secure a molecular basis for the swift evolution of metabolic pathways Lanier et al.
Indeed, it is known that the catalytic activity of an enzyme often increases when the promiscuous catalytic activity toward multiple substrates becomes specific to a single substrate owing to the negative trade-off between catalytic promiscuity generalism and specificity specialism Des Marais and Rausher , Khersonsky and Tawfik Thus, the latent and promiscuous activities of enzymes are crucial seeds for metabolic evolution.
It is important to note that when the duplicated genes are rewired to be expressed in different spatiotemporal locations, biochemical adaptation of such genes is placed in new metabolic contexts. This would liberate the enzymes from biochemical constraints for maintaining originally assigned catalytic activities and allow them to readily become promiscuous until acquiring new biochemical functions.
However, given the limited information on known catalytic activities of the vast majority of enzymes, the catalytic modulation by tissue-specific physical interactions of catalytic enzymes, noncatalytic scaffold proteins and redox partners and allostery by protein—metabolite interactions Tatsis et al.
Many specialized metabolic genes are frequently duplicated in tandem at specific genomic locations Chae et al. Importantly, there have also been reports of metabolic evolution in eukaryotes via horizontal gene transfer HGT Kirsch et al.
Phenylalanine ammonia lyase, the enzyme catalyzing the first committed step in the phenylpropanoid pathway leading to lignin, lignan and flavonoids, was acquired ancestrally via HGT during symbiosis with soil bacteria Emiliani et al. Thus, it is of particular interest whether HGT has played indispensable roles in the evolution of specialized metabolism in plants.
Older genes, such as those involved in central metabolism, are intertwined with many intermolecular optimizations, and it has been reported that spare genes are rarely retained before they acquire new gene functions due to high molecular entanglements Kuzmin et al.
The functional differentiation of duplicated genes has been studied, but the evolution of new functions has been reported to be highly related to the low potency of the underlying gene. This is likely because many enzymes that mediate specialized metabolism are lineage-specific i.
recently multiple superfamily genes that successfully developed different catalytic activities. Because groups of genes that have formed relatively recently, such as those for specialized metabolism, are usually distant from genes involved in central metabolism, it is unlikely that they have experienced a high degree of intermolecular optimization with other genes compared to central metabolic genes.
Therefore, they may be more likely to undergo functional innovation. The unique evolutionary context located at the periphery of metabolism allows the emergence of highly specialized metabolic functions via the low entanglement of catalytic units Table 1.
Steviol glycosides that are widely used as natural sweeteners are derived from the metabolism of diterpenes, which share their biosynthetic origins with the phytohormone gibberellin.
Moreover, auxins and glucosinolates are derived from tryptophan, whereas strigolactones originate from carotenoids. The biosynthesis and metabolism of all of these phytohormones are also mediated by many oxygenation and glycosylation reactions, practically sharing the involvement of CYP, DOX and UGT genes with specialized metabolism, as discussed in this review.
We speculate that these genes were unlikely recruited to various metabolic pathways on the basis of the high gene multiplicity in plant genomes but rather that they became multiple genes as the common catalytic units for the evolutionary latency to assemble metabolism at multiple levels of co-presence; common transcription factors Shoji , protein—protein interactions Nakayama et al.
In other words, these catalytic units are specialized in that they are prone to reorganize new metabolism. The uniformity in cooperative and low entangled catalytic units would ultimately allow for thrifty natural selection, avoiding the much costly de novo synthesis of such units Fig.
Therefore, it is feasible that particular gene families have been expanded through feedforward interactions, in which the repurposed units are functionally optimized Table 1. Metabolism is actually a continuous process, with no clear boundaries between categories, but the features described here provide a new perspective for understanding metabolic evolution in plants.
Two conceptual modes that support the evolvability of plant specialized metabolism. Biosynthesis of plant specialized metabolites generally starts from highly central and highly conserved i. across the plant kingdom core metabolites as precursors.
Therefore, the vast structural diversity of plant specialized metabolites depends largely on an array of catalytic properties exhibited by specific enzymes.
However, such enzymes often feature common catalytic units that drive metabolic divergence. On the other hand, there are examples of common plant specialized metabolites that are biosynthesized by a specific set of enzyme-coding genes that do not share an apparent common evolutionary origin.
Plants are constantly updating their specialized metabolism to increase ecological fitness for their survival in nature. Therefore, specialized metabolic evolution is an arms race for adaptive chemical traits by diversifying common enzyme genes, which is analogous to the race against pathogen effectors via the diversification of multiple nucleotide-binding domains and leucine-rich repeat-containing gene NLR -mediated plant immunity Jones et al.
They are comparable in terms of the race for diversification of interacting molecules that function at the boundary between organisms. Even the biological relevance of the metabolites that are currently crucial for a plant will be biochemically updated as the environmental context changes.
However, the manner of updating the bioactivities of the metabolites might not significantly change compared with the ongoing evolution of specialized metabolisms. The accumulation of this structure—activity relationship will help predict enzyme activity and the convergent evolution of enzymes in specialized metabolism Yang et al.
In this review, we described possible mechanisms of how the convergent evolution, co-presence and evolvability of specialized metabolisms have been achieved. Driving force to convergently develop the identical metabolites currently remain unknown.
We speculate that the biological activities of convergent specialized metabolites in analogous tissues and organs in different plants are likely to be associated with the adaptations for disease resistance, microbial symbiosis, pollinator attraction and herbivore avoidance that are commonly indispensable among various plant species.
However, this is not the case when the sites of accumulation of the identical metabolites are distinct in different plant species.
Aurone found in nonflowering liverworts is speculated to contribute to UV tolerance on land. However, in flowering plants, aurone pigments may also contribute to pollinator attraction via coloration in floral organs Davies et al.
Thus, specialized metabolites may have different physiological functions in different evolutionary contexts. For example, the in planta role of sesamin has long been enigmatic. However, the recent discovery of soil-borne microorganisms that have acquired sesamin-degrading enzymes from sesame fields suggests that sesamin is consumed by selected microorganisms Kumano et al.
Similarly, caffeine-degrading microbes have been identified Summers et al. It would be particularly interesting to clarify whether these microbes that evolved to assimilate specialized metabolites are enriched in cultivated fields of crops producing the responsible specialized metabolites for the sake of hidden biological interactions.
Specialized metabolites secreted from roots include triterpenoid acids and coumarins, which are thought to participate in interactions with soil microorganisms and insects Nakayasu et al. Findings have emerged that plants promote specific microbiota formation, via specialized metabolites, to obtain water, minerals, and organic compounds.
Future studies will clarify whether specialized metabolites with unknown functions play important roles in symbiosis and co-evolution with other underground organisms as in the case of thalianol and other specialized metabolites that are secreted from the roots of A.
thaliana Huang et al. Furthermore, several intestinal microorganisms that metabolize ingested plant specialized lignans into enterolignans have been reported in the human gut microbiome Bess et al.
Thus, specialized metabolism is expected to expand into the large field of the metabolite-mediated interplay between multiple organisms, from ecology and agriculture to human health.
Supplementary data are available at PCP online. The data for metabolite Fig. We respectfully acknowledge Profs. Toru Nakayama and Vincenzo De Luca for their invaluable contributions to plant biochemistry, continuous encouragement and warm mentorship.
We thank Dr. Desmond Bradley and Dr. Enrico Coen John Innes Centre, UK , Dr. Masaharu Mizutani Kobe University , Dr. Shiro Suzuki Gifu University and Yudai Motoyoshi SIC for providing photos of Antirrhinum, Marchantia, Thujopsis and Coffea , respectively.
We also thank Dr. Shigehiko Kanaya at Nara Institute of Science and Technology NAIST and Motoshige Takagi at Suntory System Technology SST for their technical support on the KNApSAcK database. Afendi F. Plant Cell Physiol. Google Scholar. Akiyama R.
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Obayashi T. and Kinoshita K. Ogino A. and Nesumi A. Ohgami S. Plant Physiol. These plants were transplanted into 3. All plants were maintained under the same conditions in an outdoor cage before commencement of experiments.
The plants were placed on weed matting and, using an automatic sprinkler system, watered twice and four times daily during spring and summer, respectively. The vegetation surrounding each plot was kept low by periodic scything.
Each plot consisted of 10 mānuka plants intermingled with and an equal number of conspecifics or one of the two invaders heather or broom , ensuring no above-ground or below-ground physical contact.
VOCs were collected from 6 healthy mānuka plants per plot from 7 to 9th January All volatile collections were done under sunny, dry conditions, and samples were collected from treatments simultaneously to account for collection time effects.
Briefly, proportions of mānuka foliage were bagged in new Glad ® oven bags. Carbon-filtered air was simultaneously pushed into and pulled out of bags through PTFE tubes connected to a portable volatile collection system pump PVAS22; Volatile Assay Systems Rensselaer NY, USA.
Compounds were trapped onto volatile collection filters containing 30 mg HayeSep Q adsorbent Volatile Assay Systems Rensselaer, NY, USA. Each volatile collection lasted 2 h. The bagged foliage was then excised, oven-dried 60 °C for 72 h and used to estimate VOC emission per dry weight g.
The eluted samples were analysed using gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry GC—MS QP; GCMS Solution version 2. The GC—MS programme followed 35 , and compounds were tentatively identified by comparing them to the National Institute of Standards library and confirmed using commercial standards when available.
The air in clean oven bags without plants blanks was analysed, and contaminants were excluded from the analysis. Compounds identified from plants in both plots were pooled for respective treatments for analysis. Adult Pyronota festiva and Lochmaea suturalis were collected from the Central Plateau in early summer using a beating tray.
Each plant used for the bioassays was healthy and undamaged. Plants were removed from the outdoor cage once their foliage was excised for bioassays to avoid inducing changes in the volatile profiles of the remaining healthy plants. Beetles were starved 24 h prior to their trial, and each beetle was tested only once.
We tested the preference of adult P. festiva and L. suturalis using a glass Y-tube olfactometer. The Y-tube was laid horizontally without any inclination on a benchtop with a white background.
Using a portable volatile collection pump PVAS22; Volatile Assay Systems Rensselaer NY , connected with PTFE tubes, carbon-filtered air was pushed at a rate of 0. Each chamber contained a different treatment i. For the plant treatments, 4 g of the respective plant foliage were placed in each chamber.
Air from the chambers was then pushed into the assigned Y-tube arm. The trials were conducted in a temperature-controlled room 22 °C , with no overhead lighting but the Y-tube was illuminated by a centrally positioned W incandescent lamp.
Pyronota festiva and L. suturalis were separately offered a choice between Y-tube arms with the following olfactory cues: 1 heather or clean air, 2 mānuka or clean air and 3 heather or mānuka. Each beetle was placed at the release point and given 10 min to respond to the treatment. Beetles that did not choose within the allocated time were noted as a no choice.
Thirty 30 insects were tested for each treatment per beetle species, and the Y-tube was cleaned and rotated after each trial. Foliage in the glass chambers was replaced with fresh material after 10 trials, and the Y-tube system was thoroughly cleaned with non-scented soap and oven-dried for 30 min 80 °C between treatments to prevent cross contamination.
Adult P. Twigs of healthy heather and mānuka plants inserted in separate water-filled Eppendorf tubes were used as the tested plant materials, while a green non-scented plastic was used as a blank. One beetle was placed in the middle of a Petri dish containing one of the treatments, with 30 replicates conducted for each beetle species.
The location of each beetle on either plant or blank was recorded at 0. All statistical analyses were performed using R version 4. We also grouped the volatile compounds into their major chemical classes Supplementary Table S1 and compared them between treatments using GLM, as already described, but with Gamma distribution log-link.
The beetle bioassay data were analysed using the two-tailed Chi-squared Χ 2 test. Thirty-two volatile compounds, predominantly sesquiterpenes and monoterpenes, were identified as most abundant in the headspace of mānuka Supplementary Tables S1 and S2.
Based on these compounds, we used linear discriminant analysis LDA to classify mānuka into three distinct groups, with the results showing a clear separation between conspecific and heterospecific groupings Fig.
Compounds including E -β-Caryophyllene, Z -β-Ocimene, Z,E -α-Farnesene, α-Amorphene, α-Selinene, β-Elemene, Calamenene, δ-Cadinene, Humulene, Isoledene, Limonene, Methyl salicylate and Nerol had higher loading scores, which correspond with the higher emission of these compounds by mānuka neighbouring conspecifics Supplementary Tables S2 and S3.
Linear discriminant analysis based on the aboveground volatile compounds identified from mānuka plants neighbouring broom MB , heather MH or conspecifics MM without above- or below-ground physical contact. Comparison of a number of compounds and b emission rates of volatile compounds released by mānuka plants neighbouring either broom MB , heather MH or conspecifics MM.
GLVs—green leaf volatiles, MT—monoterpenoids, SQT—sesquiterpenes, Other—other volatiles, Total—total emissions. In the Y-tube olfactometer trials, when plants were paired with blank clean air , P.
However, P. festiva PF and L. suturalis LS choices in a Y-tube olfactometer a paired choice test offering host and non-host plants vs clean air blank and b paired choice test offering host vs non-host plants.
festiva presented with heather plant volatiles vs blank, and so on. Adult L. But, unlike P. festiva, L. Beetle host selection and feeding preferences for their host and non-host plants were also assessed in Petri dishes for 32 h, with observations at 0.
At any measured time, P. festiva showed a significant preference for mānuka and heather cues over a blank Fig. When offered mānuka and heather cues simultaneously, P. festiva showed a stronger preference for its host plant, although heather attracted some individuals Fig. festiva host selection recorded at different times in a Petri dish.
Similarly, L. suturalis showed a significant preference for its host plant at all measured times and sometimes for mānuka when heather was not available Fig. The beetle selected its host plant over mānuka when presented with the two simultaneously Fig.
suturalis host selection recorded at different times in a Petri dish. After 32 h, beetles were removed from the Petri dishes, and foliar feeding damage was visually inspected. We found significant damage when P. However, when offered only their non-host plants, damage signs were extremely low on heather offered to P.
Observed feeding damage caused by P. suturalis when a only one plant was offered either host or non host vs a blank or b a paired choice between host and non-host plant was offered.
festiva offered with mānuka, and so on. There is a vast body of literature exploring the ecological roles of plant volatiles and allelopathic potential of invasive plants—focused mainly on root exudates see excellent reviews by 6 , 38 , 39 , 40 but comparatively few studies have explored the role of volatile organic compounds VOCs in interactions between native and invasive species.
Since then, this phenomenon has been reported for multiple species 43 , and it is now widely accepted that healthy plants or plant parts can detect herbivore-induced volatiles from a neighbour or attacked plant part and initiate changes in their defensive chemistry to prepare for future attack e.
Work by Barbosa et al. Further to this, several reports e. This evidence invites the question if native plants can detect and respond to the VOCs of invasive plants. Here, in a semi-field experiment, we explored the VOC emissions of the New Zealand native plant, mānuka, in the presence of two exotic invasive species, heather and broom without physical above- or below-ground contact.
The results reveal significantly lower VOC emissions by mānuka neighouring invasives than conspecifics, particularly when paired with heather, supporting previous field observations where mānuka was observed to have lower VOC emissions in invaded sites 33 , and suggest that above-ground volatiles alone are at least partly accountable for this response.
Increasingly, reports show that the species composition of neighbouring vegetation strongly influences VOC emissions. Contrary, lower emissions have been reported for Pinus halepensis 46 , Rosmarinus officinalis, and Cistus albidus 47 under interspecific interactions, showing that responses to neighbouring plants may vary depending on the species involved.
We hypothesise that changes in VOC emissions by native plants can occur via two non-exclusive mechanisms a as a direct response to the cues of a competing plant, e. Therefore, further studies are required to elucidate the mechanisms behind the observed phenomenon.
Questions like whether plants have VOC-sensing receptors and other transporters or VOCs are perceived through direct modification of cell membranes, remain unanswered 51 , In the case of mānuka, the reduced emissions when exposed to the cues of aggressive neighbours could be preparedness for competition 39 , Thus, the plant lowers its emission to reallocate much-needed resources to compete with the invaders, since VOC production comes at a cost Plant volatiles play a vital role in host plant selection by phytophagous insects Most insects appear to distinguish host and non-host plants based on specific blends of ubiquitous volatiles, although some specialists are known to use taxonomically restricted compounds such as isothiocyanates in cruciferous plants to find their hosts However, responses to plant volatiles are not entirely fixed, since early feeding experience and learning can play a role in determining future choices 56 , 57 , 58 , 59 , allowing for some behavioural plasticity.
During plant invasions, native insects are confronted with new olfactory cues from plants they did not co-evolve with. Likewise, introduced biocontrol agents will experience a similar challenge when faced with native plants.
In this work, we explored the behavioural responses of the native mānuka beetle P. festiva and the introduced heather beetle L. suturalis towards volatiles of their host and non-host plants and their combination in a Y tube olfactometer. Host-searching and selection by adult phytophagous insects involves complex decisions like prioritising their own diet versus choosing plants that would be best for their offspring 16 , This may be a challenge for species like P.
festiva where adults and juveniles feed on different plants or organs , with grubs feeding on roots of different species, whereas adults feed mainly on the foliage of mānuka plants 61 , 62 , The host range for P.
festiva includes pasture, Leptospermum scoparium mānuka , Kunzea ericoides kānuka , Discaria toumatou matagouri and even invasive Rosa rubiginosa briar 61 , 62 , Analyses of the volatile profiles of P.
Further studies involving electroantennography could be useful in identifying the compounds attractants or deterrents that are relevant in the host selection of P. We found that P. However, in the Petri dish trial, where other cues i. festiva did not feed on heather when offered simultaneously with mānuka in the Petri dish, suggesting that visual, gustatory or tactile cues play an important role in host acceptance for this species.
Lochmaea suturalis, on the other hand, is a monophagous insect and was selected as a biocontrol agent for heather on the Central Plateau because of the high levels of damage it causes to its host plant in Europe suturalis was first released on the Central Plateau in , following years of host-range testing but initially established poorly, attributed to adverse weather conditions 31 and possibly low foliar nitrogen levels 66 and the consequences of genetic bottlenecking Subsequent releases have been more successful, with beetle outbreaks causing significant damage to heather in many areas Recent evidence also shows that heather produces many volatile compounds, including green leaf volatiles, terpenes and aldehydes 35 , 68 , which may be crucial in communicating with its natural enemy, L.
Our laboratory assays show that L. suturalis is significantly attracted to its host-plant volatile cues when offered alone or simultaneously with that of a non-host plant in the Y-tube. Nevertheless, the beetle was significantly attracted to non-host volatile cues when presented against a blank, raising questions about its foraging behaviour in areas with low heather densities.
The Petri dish trials somewhat answered this. The beetle chose its host plant exclusively over mānuka when both were offered simultaneously. Although the beetle selected mānuka when given no other choice, this was not often significant, and only a few Host-switching or host-range expansion by biocontrol agents is rare in contemporary biocontrol programmes partly because of sufficient pre-release tests to ensure high host specificity, but it may sometimes occur For instance, a study in Nebraska, USA, showed that the introduced biocontrol agent Rhinocyllus conicus attacks native Cirsium undulatum significantly more in landscapes invaded by the exotic Carduus nutans than in agriculture landscapes and other areas without Carduus nutans , highlighting the risk of native plants serving as secondary hosts In our trials, we did not find substantial evidence of L.
suturalis feeding on mānuka, suggesting that it retains its high host-specificity, and that host switch or host range expansion is unlikely to occur.
Since both beetle species were collected in the field as adults and non-sexed, we cannot provide further detail regarding their previous feeding experience or whether sexes differ in their behaviour and preferences.
We, therefore, encourage future studies to explore these interactions using laboratory-reared beetles and test separately for larvae, adults, and different sexes.
In this case, we found reduced VOC emissions in a native plant Leptospermum scoparium neighbouring the invasive weed Calluna vulgaris. Alterations in VOC emission could be the result of responses to environmental changes induced by invaders or to their chemical cues.
We found that a native insect Pyronota festiva was not successful in discriminating between its host plant and an invasive non-host when their volatiles were presented simultaneously, suggesting that native insects may face challenges finding their host in invasive plant-dominated landscapes.
However, the native insect showed a clear preference for its host plant in feeding assays where other cues were present, highlighting the importance of non-volatile cues.
Our results also reinforce that the introduced biocontrol agent against heather Lochmaea suturalis is highly host-specific and does not pose any serious threat to mānuka and possibly other non-target plants. Together, these results contribute to filling the knowledge gap on the role of plant volatiles in interactions between native and introduced species, however, multiple questions remain open for future exploration.
All relevant data supporting the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. Mack, R. et al.
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October 18, Editors' notes. Editors have highlighted the following attributes while ensuring the content's credibility: fact-checked peer-reviewed publication trusted source proofread. Graphical Abstract. Yeast-based protein-protein interaction PPI screening identified dynamic enzyme complexes and biosynthetic pathways they organize from a rare plant, kratom.
PPI screening identified four functional medium-chain dehydrogenases MsMDRs interacting with strictosidine β-D-glucosidase MsSGD , leading to four novel pathway branches. This study highlights how leveraging post-translational regulation features can accelerate the discovery of biosynthetic pathways in plants.
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Boost your natural energy lpant Cheminformatics volume 15Article number: Cite this article. Red pepper omelette details. Plants are one of the Explorinh sources Boost your natural energy natural products Expllring drug coompounds. However, despite centuries of Explorihg, only a limited region Explorinh the phytochemical space has been studied. To understand the scope of what is explored versus unexplored in the phytochemical space, we begin by reconstructing the known chemical space of the plant kingdom, mapping the distribution of secondary metabolites, chemical classes, and plants traditionally used for medicinal purposes i. We identify hotspot taxonomic clades occupied by a large proportion of medicinal plants and characterized secondary metabolites, as well as clades requiring further characterization with regard to their chemical composition.
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