The Table rafe provides a Periodized eating plan estimate of the average sweat loss, and fpr risk for iodine deficiency, for Periodized eating plan groups participating in metaboljc challenging non-athletic and athletic events. Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc. The second is Veg a Kid. The rise occurs soon after you start eating, and peaks 2 to 3 hours later.

Iodine for metabolic rate in athletes -

Salt iodization programs, which many countries have implemented, have dramatically reduced the prevalence of iodine deficiency worldwide [ 2 , 3 ]. Iodine in food and iodized salt is present in several chemical forms including sodium and potassium salts, inorganic iodine I2 , iodate, and iodide, the reduced form of iodine [ 4 ].

Iodine rarely occurs as the element but rather as a salt; for this reason, it is referred to as iodide and not iodine. Iodide is quickly and almost completely absorbed in the stomach and duodenum.

Iodate is reduced in the gastrointestinal tract and absorbed as iodide [ 2 , 5 ]. When iodide enters the circulation, the thyroid gland concentrates it in appropriate amounts for thyroid hormone synthesis and most of the remaining amount is excreted in the urine [ 2 ].

Intake recommendations for iodine and other nutrients are provided in the Dietary Reference Intakes DRIs developed by the Food and Nutrition Board FNB at the Institute of Medicine of the National Academies formerly National Academy of Sciences [ 2 ].

DRI is the general term for a set of reference values used for planning and assessing nutrient intakes of healthy people. These values, which vary by age and gender [ 2 ], include the following:. Table 1 lists the current RDAs for iodine [ 2 ].

For infants from birth to 12 months, the FNB established an AI for iodine that is equivalent to the mean intake of iodine in healthy, breastfed infants in the United States.

Seaweed such as kelp, nori, kombu, and wakame is one of the best food sources of iodine [ 5 ]. Other good sources include fish and other seafood as well as eggs see Table 2. Iodine is also present in human breast milk [ 2 , 5 ] and infant formulas [ 8 ].

Dairy products contain iodine. However, the amount of iodine in dairy products varies by whether the cows received iodine feed supplements and whether iodophor sanitizing agents were used to clean the cows and milk-processing equipment [ 9 ].

Plant-based beverages used as milk substitutes, such as soy and almond beverages, contain relatively small amounts of iodine. Most commercially prepared bread contains very little iodine unless the manufacturer has used potassium iodate or calcium iodate as a dough conditioner [ 10 , 11 ].

Manufacturers list dough conditioners as an ingredient on product labels but are not required to include iodine on the Nutrition Facts label [ 12 ], even though these conditioners provide a substantial amount of iodine. According to data from the U.

Pasta is not a source of iodine unless it is prepared in water containing iodized salt because it absorbs some of the iodine [ 11 ]. Most fruits and vegetables are poor sources of iodine, and the amounts they contain are affected by the iodine content of the soil, fertilizer use, and irrigation practices [ 2 , 10 ].

This variability affects the iodine content of meat and animal products because of its impact on the iodine content of foods that the animals consume [ 14 ]. The iodine amounts in different seaweed species also vary greatly.

For these reasons, the values for the foods listed in Table 2 are approximate but can be used as a guide for estimating iodine intakes.

The U. Food and Drug Administration FDA developed DVs to help consumers compare the nutrient contents of foods and dietary supplements within the context of a total diet. The DV for iodine is mcg for adults and children age 4 years and older [ 12 ].

FDA does not require food labels to list iodine content unless iodine has been added to the food. Products made without these conditioners contain very little iodine. The USDA, FDA and Office of Dietary Supplements-National Institutes of Health ODS-NIH Database for the Iodine Content of Common Foods [ 8 ] lists the iodine content of numerous foods and beverages.

The United States, Canada, and dozens of other countries have salt-iodization programs [ 3 , 16 , 17 ]. In the United States, salt manufacturers have been adding iodine to table salt since the s, although this practice is still voluntary [ 18 ].

FDA has approved the use of potassium iodide and cuprous iodide for salt iodization [ 19 ], whereas the WHO recommends the use of potassium iodate due to its greater stability, particularly in warm, damp, or tropical climates [ 3 ]. However, most salt intake in the United States comes from processed foods, and food manufacturers almost always use noniodized salt in these foods.

If they do use iodized salt, they must list the salt as iodized in the ingredient list on the food label [ 9 ]. Specialty salts, such as sea salt, kosher salt, Himalayan salt, and fleur de sel, are not usually iodized.

Product labels will indicate if the salt is iodized or provides iodide. As shown in Table 2, noniodized sea salt provides virtually no iodine [ 8 ]. In dietary supplements, iodine is often present as potassium iodide or sodium iodide [ 20 ].

Supplements containing kelp, a seaweed that contains iodine, are also available. A small study found that people absorb potassium iodide almost completely Dietary supplements containing only iodine are also available, and many contain high doses, sometimes above the UL [ 20 ].

Many dietary supplements that contain iodine are listed in the Dietary Supplement Label Database from the NIH [ 20 ]. This database contains label information from tens of thousands of dietary supplement products on the U.

The Total Diet Study TDS , an FDA monitoring program, provides estimated iodine intakes of the U. population [ 23 ]. Through the TDS program, foods that represent the average U. diet are purchased and analyzed for several components, including iodine. These intakes meet or exceed the EAR for all groups.

TDS data do not include iodine that people obtain from the discretionary use of iodized salt [ 25 , 26 ]. Because many U. households use iodized salt, TDS data likely underestimate the true iodine intake of most U. Iodine status is typically assessed using urinary iodine measurements. Spot urine iodine measurements are a useful indicator of iodine status within populations [ 28 , 29 ].

However, multiple hour urinary iodine or multiple spot urine measurements are more accurate for individuals [ 4 , 30 ]. Median urinary iodine concentrations, from spot samples collected as part of a large survey, can be used to characterize the iodine status of populations [ 31 ].

However, because spot samples are not a suitable indicator of individual iodine status [ 30 ], these measurements cannot be used to diagnose individual cases of iodine deficiency or to identify the proportion of a population with iodine deficiency or with excessive iodine intakes [ 31 ].

Urinary iodine measurements from NHANES have been used since to monitor the iodine status of the U. population [ 32 ]. Since the inception of the NHANES monitoring program, urinary iodine measurements have shown that the general U.

population is iodine sufficient. Much of this decline was a result of decreased levels of iodine in milk due to the reduced use of iodine-containing feed supplements and iodophor sanitizing agents in the dairy industry [ 34 ] as well as the reduced use of iodate dough conditioners by commercial bakers.

The use of erythrosine, an iodine-containing food dye commonly used in fruit-flavored breakfast cereals, also decreased during this time [ 34 ] though it is unclear to what extent this change actually affected urinary iodine levels because the bioavailability of iodine from erythrosine has been found to be low [ 35 ].

This sharp decline in urinary iodine levels caused some concern during the late s that the iodine sufficiency of the U. population could be at risk if this trend continued [ 33 ]. More recent NHANES measurements indicate that urinary iodine levels have stabilized in the general U.

These values have essentially remained unchanged in the last three NHANES surveys, indicating that the dietary iodine intake of the general U.

population has remained stable since [ 36 ]. Analyses of NHANES datasets from to indicate that a substantial portion of pregnant women in the United States are iodine insufficient. Suboptimal iodine status during pregnancy has also been observed in Australia [ 39 ]. Pregnant women who do not consume dairy products may be particularly at risk of iodine insufficiency.

Overall, it appears that the general U. population has adequate iodine intake but that some pregnant women may be at risk for iodine deficiency. Continued national iodine monitoring is needed with more emphasis on population subgroups that are most susceptible to iodine deficiency disorders.

Iodine deficiency has multiple adverse effects on growth and development and is the most common cause of preventable intellectual disability in the world [ 41 ]. Iodine deficiency disorders result from inadequate thyroid hormone production secondary to insufficient iodine [ 5 ].

During pregnancy and early infancy, iodine deficiency can cause irreversible effects. Under normal conditions, the body tightly controls thyroid hormone concentrations via TSH. TSH increases thyroidal iodine uptake from the blood and the production of thyroid hormone.

However, very low iodine intakes can reduce thyroid hormone production even in the presence of elevated TSH levels. Goiter is usually the earliest clinical sign of iodine deficiency [ 2 ]. In pregnant women, iodine deficiency of this magnitude can cause major neurodevelopmental deficits and growth retardation in the fetus as well as miscarriage and stillbirth [ 5 ].

Chronic, severe iodine deficiency in utero causes cretinism, a condition characterized by intellectual disability, deaf mutism, motor spasticity, stunted growth, delayed sexual maturation, and other physical and neurological abnormalities [ 5 ]. In infants and children, less severe iodine deficiency can also cause neurodevelopmental deficits such as somewhat lower than average intelligence as measured by IQ [ 1 , 42 , 43 ].

Mild to moderate maternal iodine deficiency has also been associated with an increased risk of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in children [ 44 ]. In adults, mild to moderate iodine deficiency can cause goiter as well as impaired mental function and work productivity secondary to hypothyroidism.

Chronic iodine deficiency may be associated with an increased risk of the follicular form of thyroid cancer [ 45 ]. Historically, iodine deficiency was endemic in mountainous regions of the United States and Mexico, and in the so called goiter belt around the Great Lakes [ 46 ].

Thanks to a more national food supply, iodized salt, and other factors, overt iodine deficiency is now uncommon in North America. International efforts since the early s have dramatically reduced the incidence of iodine deficiency worldwide, but some groups of people are still at risk of inadequate iodine intake.

Iodine insufficiency remains a public health problem in 25 countries with a total population of about million people [ 47 ]. The following groups are among those most likely to have inadequate iodine status.

The use of iodized salt is the most widely used strategy to control iodine deficiency. Surveys indicate that many pregnant women in the United States might consume insufficient amounts of iodine even if they do not have signs or symptoms of overt iodine deficiency [ 36 ]. The impact, if any, of this insufficient intake on fetal development is not known.

Seafood, eggs, milk, and milk products are among the best sources of iodine. REGULAR ARTICLES August 12 A Physiological Systems Model for Iodine for Use in Radiation Protection R. Leggett R. Leggett 1. Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee This Site.

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Abstract This paper summarizes the biokinetic database for iodine in the human body and proposes a biokinetic model for systemic iodine for use in dose assessments for internally deposited radioiodine. You do not currently have access to this content.

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Hollingsworth , Merriline M. Satyamitra , Yeabsera S. Tadesse , Lanyn P. Taliaferro , Thomas A. Winters , Andrea L.

Iodine Periodized eating plan mainly found in fatty marine fish, athleges. turbot, haddock, cod. Plant iodine Fiber optic network deployment are gor algae, such Ioddine the bladderwrack Fucus vesiculosus. Iorine sources: iodised table salt, Iodine for metabolic rate in athletes milk contamination: when iodine-containing detergents are used in the milking equipment. The iodine concentration in foodstuffs depends on the iodine content of the soil. The Alpine region is an iodine deficient area, which is why locally produced food usually contains little iodine; see below for the consequences. Iodide is highly soluble in water losses due to boiling water.

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