Grain Contributions DGC developed the jealth concept and idea. Subcell Biochem. Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar Smith SA, Detoxification Support for Environmental Cleansing SJ, Matott RP, Zientara GP, Jolesz Halth, Fielding Garcinia Cambogia weight loss pills. Nrain appears that a CCreatine barrier could be the CT1 protein, which is not an abundant component of the BBB capillaries [ 26 ]. Bayes factor that indicates how likely a null hypothesis is compared to an alternative hypothesis given the data. Prevention of complications related to traumatic brain injury in children and adolescents with creatine administration: an open label randomized pilot study. There is evidence that high-dose creatine supplementation e.

Creatine and brain health -

perhaps it is more difficult. Our negative finding for the trail-making task, which tests task switching, is in line with the same two studies [ 21 , 61 ]. Our negative finding for the Stroop task, a test of inhibition, is again in line with the same two studies [ 21 , 61 ] and in contrast with one study which found a creatine effect for this task [ 57 ].

In contrast to Van Cutsem et al. These differences might explain why Van Cutsem et al. In addition, Van Cutsem et al. More difficult tasks have been hypothesised to benefit more from creatine supplementation [ 50 ], because they require more energy, i.

a higher ATP turnover, which is benefited by creatine. This modification might be why Van Cutsem et al. In sum, for the exploratory tasks, overall the evidence does not support a creatine effect. However, as the evidence for the Stroop task shows, this might be only when the tasks are made too easy for participants, so that creatine has no chance to help.

It has been claimed that creatine supplementation is more likely to benefit older adults more than younger ones [ 7 , 68 , 69 ]. One theory behind an effect of age is that brain creatine levels might decrease with age. There is evidence that this happens with muscle creatine levels [ 70 , 71 , 72 , 73 ] although see [ 74 , 75 ] , although it is unclear if this is an effect of ageing itself or a result of other reasons such as dietary choices or reduced physical activity [ 22 ].

Similarly, brain creatine might be affected by ageing directly or mediated by reduced brain activity. However, Solis et al. Experimental evidence suggests an effect of age. A meta-analysis by Prokopidis et al.

However, there are reasons for caution. For reasons unknown to us, the meta-analysis did not include Hammett et al. In addition, as described above, a number of other studies with participants younger than ours found large creatine effects.

The observational evidence reported in the discussion of diet [ 62 ] is consistent with an effect of age. However, as they did not include young adults, we cannot know if they would not show the same correlation.

In their review, Smith-Ryan et al. The limited evidence from the present study and previous studies does not support this idea. There have only been three RCTs on the effect of creatine on cognition in healthy women and three in healthy men.

One of the studies with women found a creatine effect and two did not find an effect one of these with only elderly participants. Two of the studies with men one of these with sleep-deprived participants found a creatine effect and one did not find an effect.

Apart from the present study, which found no effect of sex, studies who included both men and women did not report the effect of sex.

In their meta-analysis on the effect of creatine on memory performance, Prokopidis et al. There are a number of limitations to this study.

Despite the large sample size compared to other studies, a larger sample size would be needed to be powered for effects that are smaller but still relevant. The COVID pandemic started in the middle of the study, might have added noise to the data, and meant that we had to switch from in-person cognitive testing to testing via video call.

However, we do not see this potential source of noise reflected in the standard deviations compared to pre-pandemic studies. However, creatine intake through meat is usually substantially lower than the supplemented dose [ 13 ]. Adherence was self-reported and not checked with blood samples.

A major limitation is that brain creatine levels were not assessed. The largest contributing factor to correct guesses was likely the difference in the solubility between the powders, followed by negative and positive side effects.

We attempted to counteract differences in solubility by recommending participants to stir the supplements into yoghurt.

Mixing creatine in yoghurt rather than water might have negatively affected creatine absorption, because the lower water content and usually cold temperature of yoghurt would decrease creatine solubility [ 77 ]. In addition, yoghurt has a lower pH value than water 4 vs. Overall, our educated guess is that creatine absorption when mixed in yoghurt is similarly effective as in cold water but worse than in warm water.

For future studies, we recommend cellulose as the placebo and a mixture of cellulose and creatine as the treatment, as these two look extremely similar when dissolved in water. The alternative solution with capsules would require participants to consume many capsules per day.

This would likely reduce adherence and massively increase costs. Unfortunately, it is difficult to achieve perfect blinding when side effects occur with higher frequency in the creatine condition. The side effects of creatine are well-known and not dangerous [ 1 , 4 , 5 , 6 ].

Supplementing creatine is safe, easy, and very cheap. The real effect of creatine on cognition is likely smaller than that reported in Rae et al. However, even small improvements in cognition may be relevant, especially if accumulated over many people and over time.

The results of this study do not allow any strong conclusions, but it would be worthwhile to test for a small effect of creatine in strategically designed, larger studies.

We used the score after supplementation and not change from baseline, because subtracting the same baseline from both after-supplement scores in a crossover study would cancel out, which would give the same result but complicate the analysis unnecessarily. Samadi et al.

However, the creatine effect is correctly measured by the difference in change between the two groups i. Note also that in addition to creatine and placebo, both groups received beta-alanine. One of the studies with omnivores that did not find an effect was on children [ 48 ].

Another one also found no effect of creatine on strength, in contrast to a large body of literature [ 50 ]. As opposed to us, they included two baselines. To better compare our results to them, we did not just look at their reported effect but also calculated their effect size using just the after-supplement scores like we did in this study see Appendix.

Their effect was still much larger than ours. Using the doubled effect size for Rae et al. Bayes factor that indicates how likely a null hypothesis is compared to an alternative hypothesis given the data. Kreider RB, Kalman DS, Antonio J, Ziegenfuss TN, Wildman R, Collins R, et al.

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Download references. We thank the doctors of the University Clinic Bonn who collected blood samples. We thank Prof. Rand R. Wilcox, Dr. Lincoln Colling, Dr. Christian Stark, Jan Speller, Maximilian Meier, and David Reinstein for their feedback on statistical questions. We thank Thomas Szpejewski and Tom Lieberum for their help with verifying data quality.

We thank all data entry helpers. Open Access funding enabled and organized by Projekt DEAL. Funding was provided by the non-profit organisation Effective Ventures Foundation, Fillmore St.

The trial funders had no role in the design of the study; the collection, analysis, or interpretation of data; the writing of the report; or the decision to submit the article for publication. Department of Psychology, University of Bonn, Kaiser-Karl-Ring 9, , Bonn, Germany.

Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Hospital Bonn, Bonn, Germany. Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Medical Center, Mainz, Germany.

Manchester University NHS Foundation Trust, Manchester, UK. Department of Computer Science, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.

Future of Humanity Institute, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK. You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar. JFS and JB conceived of the study. JFS, XK, SL, AP, HM, and JB designed the study. AP and HM managed staff members as the director and vice director of the hospital.

JFS and JB wrote the grant proposal. XK wrote the proposal for the ethics committee. JFS preregistered the study. XK prepared the logistics of the study and supervised EKK. JFS, AF, and EKK tested participants. JFS managed data entry and analysed the data.

JFS wrote and revised the manuscript with help from XK, GA, SL, UE, and JB. UE contributed to the supervision of JFS. JB was the main supervisor and senior author of the study.

All authors read and approved the final manuscript. Correspondence to Julia Fabienne Sandkühler. Participants gave informed consent to participate before being enrolled.

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Reprints and permissions. Sandkühler, J. et al. The effects of creatine supplementation on cognitive performance—a randomised controlled study. BMC Med 21 , Download citation. Received : 14 April Accepted : 31 October Published : 15 November Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:.

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article. Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative. Skip to main content. Search all BMC articles Search. Download PDF. Research article Open access Published: 15 November The effects of creatine supplementation on cognitive performance—a randomised controlled study Julia Fabienne Sandkühler ORCID: orcid.

Abstract Background Creatine is an organic compound that facilitates the recycling of energy-providing adenosine triphosphate ATP in muscle and brain tissue.

Methods Our trial was preregistered, cross-over, double-blind, placebo-controlled, and randomised, with daily supplementation of 5 g for 6 weeks each. Results Bayesian evidence supported a small beneficial effect of creatine. Conclusions Our study, in combination with the literature, implies that creatine might have a small beneficial effect.

Trial registration The trial was prospectively registered drks. Background Given the important role cognition plays in daily life, enhancing cognition safely and cheaply is highly desirable.

Methods Trial design We conducted a randomised, placebo-controlled, double-blind, cross-over study. Participant flow through the study. Full size image. Results Participant flow See participant flow in Fig. Baseline data We analysed all available participant data apart from two minor exceptions see Appendix.

Table 1 Participant baseline characteristics Full size table. Table 2 Adherence and negative side effects Full size table. Table 3 Results of confirmatory analysis Full size table. Table 4 Results of Bayesian analysis Full size table.

Table 5 Results of robustness checks Full size table. Table 6 Results for exploratory cognitive tasks Full size table. Discussion Summary of results This is the largest study on the cognitive effects of creatine to date.

Effect of diet Dietary creatine is primarily contained in meat, fish, and a small amount in some dairy products [ 13 , 14 ]. Exploratory cognitive tasks other than short-term memory We did not find a creatine effect for our exploratory tasks.

Effect of age It has been claimed that creatine supplementation is more likely to benefit older adults more than younger ones [ 7 , 68 , 69 ].

Effect of gender In their review, Smith-Ryan et al. Limitations There are a number of limitations to this study. Conclusions Supplementing creatine is safe, easy, and very cheap. Notes We used the score after supplementation and not change from baseline, because subtracting the same baseline from both after-supplement scores in a crossover study would cancel out, which would give the same result but complicate the analysis unnecessarily.

References Kreider RB, Kalman DS, Antonio J, Ziegenfuss TN, Wildman R, Collins R, et al. What does this mean? Research into creatine supplementation and the brain remains very much in progress, so take bold claims about its cranial benefits with a grain of salt.

Research on its impact on brain health is promising, but very early. Given the lack of detrimental side effects and favorable upsides not to mention exercise-boosting fundamentals , supplementing creatine is a safe bet, no matter how you spin it. Forbes, Scott C. et al Effects of Creatine Supplementation on Brain Function and Health.

Avgerinos, Konstantinos I. Effects of creatine supplementation on cognitive function of healthy individuals: A systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Prokopidis, Konstantinos et al Effects of creatine supplementation on memory in healthy individuals: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.

Aksenov, M Y et al Ravina, B M et al Sakellaris, G et al Prevention of complications related to traumatic brain injury in children and adolescents with creatine administration: an open label randomized pilot study.

Yazigi Solis, Marina et al Brain creatine depletion in vegetarians? A cross-sectional ¹H-magnetic resonance spectroscopy ¹H-MRS study. Fernandes-Pires, Gabriella et al Current and potential new treatment strategies for creatine deficiency syndromes. All the Cool Kids Are Taking Creatine for Brain Health.

In an exceedingly rare moment of foresight luck, really , the creatine hawking gym bros were right all along. By Will Price Fact-Checked by Joy Ferguson August 14, What Is Creatine? CREATINE Creatine doesn't fully dissolve into water, but it has no taste and would be imperceptible if it didn't make a glass of water look like ocean water.

The Bottom Line. References 1.

BMC Medicine Creatone 21Article number: Creatinf this article. Metrics details. Creatine is an organic compound that facilitates the recycling of energy-providing adenosine triphosphate ATP in muscle and brain tissue. It is a safe, well-studied supplement for strength training. Previous studies have shown that supplementation increases brain creatine levels, which might increase cognitive performance. The research, hewlth by Bain Hormonal health supplement Natural medicine remedies on gealth of the International Life Sciences Institute, Cholesterol-lowering shopping list to a Creatine and brain health body of literature on hhealth neurobehavioral and physiological brwin of creatine supplementation. The team of researchers from the United Kingdom, the United Ehalth and Canada identified 23 Craetine randomized control trails RCTs Hormonal health supplement a thorough search of the Web of Science, Cochrane Library and Scopus databases from inception through September Trials including participants with self-reported comorbidities or any specific dietary restrictions, such as vegetarians, were then excluded to generate a total of 10 studies for systematic review. Eight were conducted in young adults and two in older adults. Of these, eight qualified for meta-analysis, with a total of participants 74 males and females; in creatine group, in placebo group. A creatine dose of 2. The researchers noted a lack of homogeneity in outcomes of memory performance, limitations in terms of the assessment of baseline levels of serum or brain creatine, and a need for common assessment tools.